Antimicrobial

Herbs and essential oils are known for their antimicrobial potential, and have been studied for their abilities to inhibits or kill microbes including bacteria, fungi, viruses, and yeast.  It is important to understand therapeutic margin for each botanical, the amount at which a substance is both safe and effective to use.

Read more about the antibacterial actions of essential oils including cinnamon and thyme.

Antimicrobial Recipes

All Purpose Spicy House Cleaner Recipe

Calendula Skin Serum Recipe

Easy Cardamom Tea Recipe

Easy Cinnamon Tea Recipe for a Blistery Cold Day

Easy Clove Tea Recipe

Easy Thyme Tea Recipe

Herbal Infused All Purpose House Cleaner Recipe

Honey and Lavender Wound Salve

How to Enjoy Using Cinnamon Essential Oil Safely

Rosemary Lemon Produce Spray

Toothache Clove Oil Recipe

Blog Articles

Do Essential Oil Diffusers Really Work?

Green Cleaning

How to Enjoy Using Cinnamon Essential Oil Safely

Natural Preservatives & Homemade Products

Noni Berries: Not so Delicious, but Quite Nutricious!

Peppermint as an Antimicrobial

Research on the Cinnamaldehyde Constituent

Rosemary for Skin Irritations

RESEARCH

The listings of research below represent a compilation of scientific articles found on the topic, with a very brief overview description of each article/study.  This compilation of research articles does not necessarily imply that there are adequate results to demonstrate safe and/or effective human use of any herb listed.

GENERAL

• This was a review of the antimicrobial activities of essential oils, especially to drug resistant pathogens. Mittal, R. P., Rana, A., & Jaitak, V. (2019). Essential Oils: An Impending Substitute of Synthetic Antimicrobial Agents to Overcome Antimicrobial Resistance. Current drug targets, 20(6), 605-624.
• A thorough review of research on the antimicrobial, antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral activities of essential oils was provided.  From:  Reichling, J., Schnitzler, P., Suschke, U., & Saller, R. (2009). Essential oils of aromatic plants with antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, and cytotoxic properties–an overview. Complementary Medicine Research, 16(2), 79-90.
• Akthar, M. S., Degaga, B., & Azam, T. (2014). Antimicrobial activity of essential oils extracted from medicinal plants against the pathogenic microorganisms: a review. Issues in Biological Sciences and Pharmaceutical Research, 2(1), 1-7.
• Cineole, citral, geraniol, linalool and menthol were tested against a variety of bacteria and fungi, showing a range of antimicrobial activity.  From:  Pattnaik, S., Subramanyam, V. R., Bapaji, M., & Kole, C. R. (1996). Antibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituents of essential oils. Microbios, 89(358), 39-46.
• Lamiaceae plants were studied in vitro.  Plants including motherwort showed antimicrobial activity.  Active constituents included: ursolic acid, siderol and nepetalactone.  From:  Sattar, A. A., Bankova, V., Kujumgiev, A., Galabov, A., Ignatova, A., Todorova, C., & Popov, S. (1995). Chemical composition and biological activity of leaf exudates from some Lamiaceae plants. Die Pharmazie, 50(1), 62-65.

ANGELICA

• Essential oils from Angelica glauca and A. archangelica have shown antimicrobial and antioxidant activities that could be useful in food preservation. From: Joshi, R. K. (2016). Angelica (Angelica glauca and A. archangelica) Oils. In Essential Oils in Food Preservation, Flavor and Safety (pp. 203-208). Academic Press.
• Angelica root essential oil was antimicrobial in vitro against Clostridium difficile, C. perfringens, Enterococcus faecalis, Eubacterium limosum, Peptostreptococcus anaerobius, and Candida albicans. From: Fraternale, D., Flamini, G., & Ricci, D. (2014). Essential oil composition and antimicrobial activity of Angelica archangelica L.(Apiaceae) roots. Journal of medicinal food, 17(9), 1043-1047.

ANISE

• Clove, cumin, origanum, and anise essential oils may be a  potential source of natural antioxidant and antimicrobial agents.  From:  Raeisi, M., Hashemi, M., Aminzare, M., Sadeghi, M., Jahani, T., Keshavarzi, H., … & Tepe, B. (2016). Comparative Evaluation of Phytochemical, Antioxidant, and Antibacterial Properties from the Essential Oils of Four Commonly Consuming Plants in Iran. Journal of food quality and hazards control, 3(3), 107-113.

BASIL

• The use of plant essential oils against antibiotic resistant microbes is discussed. Key essential oils include basil, cilantro, coriander, cinnamon, clove, curry, garlic, helichrysum, lavender, lemongrass, oregano, peppermint, and tea tree. From: Yang, S. K., Low, L. Y., Yap, P. S. X., Yusoff, K., Mai, C. W., Lai, K. S., & Lim, S. H. E. (2018). Plant-Derived Antimicrobials: Insights into Mitigation of Antimicrobial Resistance. Records of Natural Products, 12(4).
• A total of 146 organisms were tested against O. basilicum, and the results showed a lack of antifungal activities, but anticandidal and antibacterial effects.  From:  Adigüzel, A., Güllüce, M., ŞENGÜL, M., Öğütcü, H., ŞAHİN, F., & Karaman, I. (2005). Antimicrobial effects of Ocimum basilicum (Labiatae) extract. Turkish Journal of Biology, 29(3), 155-160.
• Essential oils from anise, angelica, basil, carrot, celery, cardamom, coriander, dill weed, fennel, oregano, parsley, and rosemary were evaluated for antimicrobial activity. Oregano, basil, and coriander showed the highest activity.  From:  Elgayyar, M., Draughon, F. A., Golden, D. A., & Mount, J. R. (2001). Antimicrobial activity of essential oils from plants against selected pathogenic and saprophytic microorganisms. Journal of Food Protection®, 64(7), 1019-1024.
• Nine plant spice essential oils were tested on various microorganisms (Salmonella typhimurium, Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Yersinia enterocolitica, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida rugosa, Rhizopus oryzae and Aspergillus niger and showed antimicrobial activity and may be used to combat pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms, and improve shelf-life of foods.  They included: savory, laurel, oregano, basil, cumin, sea fennel, myrtle, and mint.  From:  Özcan, M., & Erkmen, O. (2001). Antimicrobial activity of the essential oils of Turkish plant spices. European Food Research and Technology, 212(6), 658-660.
• Hyssopus officinalis (hyssop), Ocimum basilicum (basil), and Teucrium chamaedrys (wall germander) demonstrated antioxidant and antimicrobial benefits.  From:  Vlase, L., Benedec, D., Hanganu, D., Damian, G., Csillag, I., Sevastre, B., … & Tilea, I. (2014). Evaluation of antioxidant and antimicrobial activities and phenolic profile for Hyssopus officinalis, Ocimum basilicum and Teucrium chamaedrys. Molecules, 19(5), 5490-5507.
• Ocimum basilicum essential oils and their principal constituents were found to exhibit antimicrobial activity against a wide range of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, yeast, and mold.  From:  Suppakul, P., Miltz, J., Sonneveld, K., & Bigger, S. W. (2003). Antimicrobial properties of basil and its possible application in food packaging. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 51(11), 3197-3207.
• Oregano, coriander, and basil essential oil showed the greatest inhibition to the other bacteria and fungi tested. Anise oil was not particularly inhibitory to bacteria but was highly inhibitory to molds. From:  Elgayyar, M., Draughon, F. A., Golden, D. A., & Mount, J. R. (2001). Antimicrobial activity of essential oils from plants against selected pathogenic and saprophytic microorganisms. Journal of Food Protection®, 64(7), 1019-1024.
• Cananga odorata, Boswellia thurifera, Cymbopogon citratus, Marjorana hortensis, Ocimum basilicum, Rosmarinus officinalis, Cinnamomum zeylanicum and Citrus limon exhibited considerable inhibitory effect against all the bacteria and fungi tested, and also demonstrated antioxidant activity comparable with α-tocopherol and butylated hydroxytoluene.  From:  Baratta, M. T., Dorman, H. J., Deans, S. G., Figueiredo, A. C., Barroso, J. G., & Ruberto, G. (1998). Antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of some commercial essential oils. Flavour and fragrance journal, 13(4), 235-244.
• The following essential oils were tested against a variety of microbes in a variety of environments:  cinnamon (Cinnamon zeylanicum), clove (Syzygium aromaticum), basil (Ocimum basillicum), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), dill (Anethum graveolens), and ginger (Zingiber officinalis).   From:  Lopez, P., Sanchez, C., Batlle, R., & Nerin, C. (2005). Solid-and vapor-phase antimicrobial activities of six essential oils: susceptibility of selected foodborne bacterial and fungal strains. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 53(17), 6939-6946.
• Cineole, citral, geraniol, linalool and menthol were tested against a variety of bacteria and fungi, showing a range of antimicrobial activity.  From:  Pattnaik, S., Subramanyam, V. R., Bapaji, M., & Kole, C. R. (1996). Antibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituents of essential oils. Microbios, 89(358), 39-46.
• Origanum vulgare, Melissa officinalis, Rosmarinus officinalis, Ocimum basilicum, Salvia officinalis, and Hyssopus officinalis were test and O. vulgare extracts exhibited the highest antioxidant capacity, and the highest rosmarinic acid and polyphenolic contents. L. monocytogenes, S. aureus and C. albicans were pathogens affected by all six extracts. ​From: Benedec, D., Hanganu, D., Oniga, I., Tiperciuc, B., Olah, N. K., Raita, O., … & Vlase, L. (2015). Assessment of rosmarinic acid content in six Lamiaceae species extracts and their antioxidant and antimicrobial potential. Pak. J. Pharm. Sci, 28(6), 2297-2303.

BAYBERRY

• Extracts from Myrica serrata (bayberry) inhibits growth of Cladosporium cucumerinum, Bacillus subtilis, and Escherichia coli.   From:  Gafner, S., Wolfender, J. L., Mavi, S., & Hostettmann, K. (1996). Antifungal and antibacterial chalcones from Myrica serrata. Planta medica, 62(01), 67-69.

BERGAMOT

• The following commercially bought oils showed antimicrobial activity against multiple pathogens:  patchouli (Pogostemon cablin), myrrh (Commiphora myrrha), bergamot (Citrus bergamia), geranium (Geranium maculatum), sandalwood (Santalum album), ylang ylang (Cananga odorata), tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia), and lavender (Lavendula officinalis).   From:  Maudsley, F., & Kerr, K. G. (1999). Microbiological safety of essential oils used in complementary therapies and the activity of these compounds against bacterial and fungal pathogens. Supportive care in cancer, 7(2), 100-102.

BLACK PEPPPER

• Extracts of black pepper and turmeric and their piperine and curcumin constituents demonstrated in vitro antioxidant and antimicrobial activity. From: de Queiroz Cancian, M. A., de Almeida, F. G., Terhaag, M. M., de Oliveira, A. G., de Souza Rocha, T., & Spinosa, W. A. (2018). Curcuma longa L.-and Piper nigrum-based hydrolysate, with high dextrose content, shows antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. LWT, 96, 386-394.

CAJEPUT

• Antimicrobial activities of lavender, thyme, peppermint, cajeput, cinnamon, clove, eucalyptus, sage, and tea tree were summarized.  From:  Wińska, K., Mączka, W., Łyczko, J., Grabarczyk, M., Czubaszek, A., & Szumny, A. (2019). Essential Oils as Antimicrobial Agents—Myth or Real Alternative?. Molecules, 24(11), 2130.
• Clove, cajeput, tea tree, naiouli, and eucalyptus showed varying degrees of activity against Penicillium commune. From: Tančinová, D., Foltinová, D., Mašková, Z., Štefániková, J., & Árvay, J. (2019). Effect of essential oils of Myrtaceae plants on the Penicillium commune. Potravinarstvo Slovak Journal of Food Sciences, 13(1), 604-613.

CARROT

• Blends with Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Daucus carota, Eucalyptus globulus, Rosmarinus officinalis, Syzygium aromaticum, and Origanum vulgare showed in vitro antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral activities against antibiotic resistant pathogens, candida strains, and both the H1N1 and HSV1 viruses. From: Brochot, A., Guilbot, A., Haddioui, L., & Roques, C. (2017). Antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral effects of three essential oil blends. MicrobiologyOpen, 6(4), e00459.

CHAMOMILE

• German and Roman chamomile extracts demonstrated varying antimicrobial activity against tested bacteria and fungi.  From:  Boudıeb, K., Kaki, S. A. S. A., Oulebsir-Mohandkaci, H., & Bennacer, A. (2018). Phytochemical Characterization and Antimicrobial Potentialities of Two Medicinal plants, Chamaemelum nobile (L.) All and Matricaria chamomilla (L.).

CHASTE

• Both 1,8-cineole and α-pinene constituents isolated from Vitex agnus-castus showed very high antimicrobial potency in vitro.  From:  Stojković, D., Soković, M., Glamočlija, J., Džamić, A., Ćirić, A., Ristić, M., & Grubišić, D. (2011). Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of Vitex agnus-castus L. fruits and leaves essential oils. Food Chemistry, 128(4), 1017-1022.

CILANTRO

• The use of plant essential oils against antibiotic resistant microbes is discussed. Key essential oils include basil, cilantro, coriander, cinnamon, clove, curry, garlic, helichrysum, lavender, lemongrass, oregano, peppermint, and tea tree. From: Yang, S. K., Low, L. Y., Yap, P. S. X., Yusoff, K., Mai, C. W., Lai, K. S., & Lim, S. H. E. (2018). Plant-Derived Antimicrobials: Insights into Mitigation of Antimicrobial Resistance. Records of Natural Products, 12(4).

CINNAMON

• Fifty-one essential oils were tested against multiple bacteria and yeast and cinnamon showed the strongest action.  From:  Hili, P., Evans, C. S., & Veness, R. G. (1997). Antimicrobial action of essential oils: the effect of dimethylsulphoxide on the activity of cinnamon oil. Letters in applied microbiology, 24(4), 269-275.
• The use of plant essential oils against antibiotic resistant microbes is discussed. Key essential oils include basil, cilantro, coriander, cinnamon, clove, curry, garlic, helichrysum, lavender, lemongrass, oregano, peppermint, and tea tree. From: Yang, S. K., Low, L. Y., Yap, P. S. X., Yusoff, K., Mai, C. W., Lai, K. S., & Lim, S. H. E. (2018). Plant-Derived Antimicrobials: Insights into Mitigation of Antimicrobial Resistance. Records of Natural Products, 12(4).
• Antimicrobial activities of lavender, thyme, peppermint, cajeput, cinnamon, clove, eucalyptus, sage, and tea tree were summarized.  From:  Wińska, K., Mączka, W., Łyczko, J., Grabarczyk, M., Czubaszek, A., & Szumny, A. (2019). Essential Oils as Antimicrobial Agents—Myth or Real Alternative?. Molecules, 24(11), 2130.
• Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Syzygium aromaticum, and Cuminum cyminum essential oils showed in vitro activity against pathogenic microorganisms Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidis, Enterococcus faecalis, Streptococcus pyogenes, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Aeromonas hydrophila, Proteus mirabilis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Candida albicans. From: Condò, C., Anacarso, I., Sabia, C., Iseppi, R., Anfelli, I., Forti, L., … & Messi, P. (2018). Antimicrobial activity of spices essential oils and its effectiveness on mature biofilms of human pathogens. Natural product research, 1-8.
• Cananga odorata, Boswellia thurifera, Cymbopogon citratus, Marjorana hortensis, Ocimum basilicum, Rosmarinus officinalis, Cinnamomum zeylanicum and Citrus limon exhibited considerable inhibitory effect against all the bacteria and fungi tested, and also demonstrated antioxidant activity comparable with α-tocopherol and butylated hydroxytoluene.  From:  Baratta, M. T., Dorman, H. J., Deans, S. G., Figueiredo, A. C., Barroso, J. G., & Ruberto, G. (1998). Antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of some commercial essential oils. Flavour and fragrance journal, 13(4), 235-244.
• Thirteen tested essential oils showed antimicrobial activity against tested organisms.  Cinnamon was more effective when not mixed with a solublilizer.  From:  Hili, P., Evans, C. S., & Veness, R. G. (1997). Antimicrobial action of essential oils: the effect of dimethylsulphoxide on the activity of cinnamon oil. Letters in applied microbiology, 24(4), 269-275.
• The following essential oils were tested against a variety of microbes in a variety of environments:  cinnamon (Cinnamon zeylanicum), clove (Syzygium aromaticum), basil (Ocimum basillicum), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), dill (Anethum graveolens), and ginger (Zingiber officinalis).   From:  Lopez, P., Sanchez, C., Batlle, R., & Nerin, C. (2005). Solid-and vapor-phase antimicrobial activities of six essential oils: susceptibility of selected foodborne bacterial and fungal strains. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 53(17), 6939-6946.
• The antimicrobial activity of of thymol, carvacrol, limonene, cinnamaldehyde, and eugenol were assessed.  From:  Di Pasqua, R., Hoskins, N., Betts, G., & Mauriello, G. (2006). Changes in membrane fatty acids composition of microbial cells induced by addiction of thymol, carvacrol, limonene, cinnamaldehyde, and eugenol in the growing media. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 54(7), 2745-2749.
• Cinnamon and eucalyptus oils showed antimicrobial activity against oral pathogens. From: Fani, M. M., & Kohanteb, J. (2019). Inhibitory activity of Cinnamomum zeylanicum and eucalyptus globulus oils on Streptococcus mutans, Staphylococcus aureus, and Candida species isolated from patients with oral infections. Journal of Dentistry, 11(Supplement Winter 2011), 14-22.
• Cinnamon bark essential oil and its cinnamaldehyde constituent were antibacterial against the oral pathogen Porphyromonas gingivitis. From: Wang, Y., Zhang, Y., Shi, Y. Q., Pan, X. H., Lu, Y. H., & Cao, P. (2018). Antibacterial effects of cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) bark essential oil on Porphyromonas gingivalis. Microbial pathogenesis, 116, 26-32.
• Blends with Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Daucus carota, Eucalyptus globulus, Rosmarinus officinalis, Syzygium aromaticum, and Origanum vulgare showed in vitro antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral activities against antibiotic resistant pathogens, candida strains, and both the H1N1 and HSV1 viruses. From: Brochot, A., Guilbot, A., Haddioui, L., & Roques, C. (2017). Antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral effects of three essential oil blends. MicrobiologyOpen, 6(4), e00459.

CLOVE

• The use of plant essential oils against antibiotic resistant microbes is discussed. Key essential oils include basil, cilantro, coriander, cinnamon, clove, curry, garlic, helichrysum, lavender, lemongrass, oregano, peppermint, and tea tree. From: Yang, S. K., Low, L. Y., Yap, P. S. X., Yusoff, K., Mai, C. W., Lai, K. S., & Lim, S. H. E. (2018). Plant-Derived Antimicrobials: Insights into Mitigation of Antimicrobial Resistance. Records of Natural Products, 12(4).
• Clove, cumin, origanum, and anise essential oils may be a  potential source of natural antioxidant and antimicrobial agents.  From:  Raeisi, M., Hashemi, M., Aminzare, M., Sadeghi, M., Jahani, T., Keshavarzi, H., … & Tepe, B. (2016). Comparative Evaluation of Phytochemical, Antioxidant, and Antibacterial Properties from the Essential Oils of Four Commonly Consuming Plants in Iran. Journal of food quality and hazards control, 3(3), 107-113.
• Antimicrobial activities of lavender, thyme, peppermint, cajeput, cinnamon, clove, eucalyptus, sage, and tea tree were summarized.  From:  Wińska, K., Mączka, W., Łyczko, J., Grabarczyk, M., Czubaszek, A., & Szumny, A. (2019). Essential Oils as Antimicrobial Agents—Myth or Real Alternative?. Molecules, 24(11), 2130.
• Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Syzygium aromaticum, and Cuminum cyminum essential oils showed in vitro activity against pathogenic microorganisms Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidis, Enterococcus faecalis, Streptococcus pyogenes, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Aeromonas hydrophila, Proteus mirabilis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Candida albicans. From: Condò, C., Anacarso, I., Sabia, C., Iseppi, R., Anfelli, I., Forti, L., … & Messi, P. (2018). Antimicrobial activity of spices essential oils and its effectiveness on mature biofilms of human pathogens. Natural product research, 1-8.
• The following essential oils were tested against a variety of microbes in a variety of environments:  cinnamon (Cinnamon zeylanicum), clove (Syzygium aromaticum), basil (Ocimum basillicum), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), dill (Anethum graveolens), and ginger (Zingiber officinalis).   From:  Lopez, P., Sanchez, C., Batlle, R., & Nerin, C. (2005). Solid-and vapor-phase antimicrobial activities of six essential oils: susceptibility of selected foodborne bacterial and fungal strains. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 53(17), 6939-6946.
• The antimicrobial activity of of thymol, carvacrol, limonene, cinnamaldehyde, and eugenol were assessed.  From:  Di Pasqua, R., Hoskins, N., Betts, G., & Mauriello, G. (2006). Changes in membrane fatty acids composition of microbial cells induced by addiction of thymol, carvacrol, limonene, cinnamaldehyde, and eugenol in the growing media. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 54(7), 2745-2749.
• Clove, cajeput, tea tree, naiouli, and eucalyptus showed varying degrees of activity against Penicillium commune. From: Tančinová, D., Foltinová, D., Mašková, Z., Štefániková, J., & Árvay, J. (2019). Effect of essential oils of Myrtaceae plants on the Penicillium commune. Potravinarstvo Slovak Journal of Food Sciences, 13(1), 604-613.
• Blends with Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Daucus carota, Eucalyptus globulus, Rosmarinus officinalis, Syzygium aromaticum, and Origanum vulgare showed in vitro antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral activities against antibiotic resistant pathogens, candida strains, and both the H1N1 and HSV1 viruses. From: Brochot, A., Guilbot, A., Haddioui, L., & Roques, C. (2017). Antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral effects of three essential oil blends. MicrobiologyOpen, 6(4), e00459.

CORIANDER

• Essential oils from anise, angelica, basil, carrot, celery, cardamom, coriander, dill weed, fennel, oregano, parsley, and rosemary were evaluated for antimicrobial activity. Oregano, basil, and coriander showed the highest activity.  From:  Elgayyar, M., Draughon, F. A., Golden, D. A., & Mount, J. R. (2001). Antimicrobial activity of essential oils from plants against selected pathogenic and saprophytic microorganisms. Journal of Food Protection®, 64(7), 1019-1024.
• The use of plant essential oils against antibiotic resistant microbes is discussed. Key essential oils include basil, cilantro, coriander, cinnamon, clove, curry, garlic, helichrysum, lavender, lemongrass, oregano, peppermint, and tea tree. From: Yang, S. K., Low, L. Y., Yap, P. S. X., Yusoff, K., Mai, C. W., Lai, K. S., & Lim, S. H. E. (2018). Plant-Derived Antimicrobials: Insights into Mitigation of Antimicrobial Resistance. Records of Natural Products, 12(4).
• Oregano, coriander, and basil essential oil showed the greatest inhibition to the other bacteria and fungi tested. Anise oil was not particularly inhibitory to bacteria but was highly inhibitory to molds. From:  Elgayyar, M., Draughon, F. A., Golden, D. A., & Mount, J. R. (2001). Antimicrobial activity of essential oils from plants against selected pathogenic and saprophytic microorganisms. Journal of Food Protection®, 64(7), 1019-1024.

CUMIN

• Clove, cumin, origanum, and anise essential oils may be a  potential source of natural antioxidant and antimicrobial agents.  From:  Raeisi, M., Hashemi, M., Aminzare, M., Sadeghi, M., Jahani, T., Keshavarzi, H., … & Tepe, B. (2016). Comparative Evaluation of Phytochemical, Antioxidant, and Antibacterial Properties from the Essential Oils of Four Commonly Consuming Plants in Iran. Journal of food quality and hazards control, 3(3), 107-113.
• Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Syzygium aromaticum, and Cuminum cyminum essential oils showed in vitro activity against pathogenic microorganisms Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidis, Enterococcus faecalis, Streptococcus pyogenes, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Aeromonas hydrophila, Proteus mirabilis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Candida albicans. From: Condò, C., Anacarso, I., Sabia, C., Iseppi, R., Anfelli, I., Forti, L., … & Messi, P. (2018). Antimicrobial activity of spices essential oils and its effectiveness on mature biofilms of human pathogens. Natural product research, 1-8.
• Nine plant spice essential oils were tested on various microorganisms (Salmonella typhimurium, Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Yersinia enterocolitica, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida rugosa, Rhizopus oryzae and Aspergillus niger and showed antimicrobial activity and may be used to combat pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms, and improve shelf-life of foods.  They included: savory, laurel, oregano, basil, cumin, sea fennel, myrtle, and mint.  From:  Özcan, M., & Erkmen, O. (2001). Antimicrobial activity of the essential oils of Turkish plant spices. European Food Research and Technology, 212(6), 658-660.
• Thyme and cumin essential oils contained the strongest antimicrobial activity against a variety of tested pathogens in vitro.  From:  Farag, R. S., Daw, Z. Y., Hewedi, F. M., & El-Baroty, G. S. A. (1989). Antimicrobial activity of some Egyptian spice essential oils. Journal of food protection, 52(9), 665-667.

CURRY

• The use of plant essential oils against antibiotic resistant microbes is discussed. Key essential oils include basil, cilantro, coriander, cinnamon, clove, curry, garlic, helichrysum, lavender, lemongrass, oregano, peppermint, and tea tree. From: Yang, S. K., Low, L. Y., Yap, P. S. X., Yusoff, K., Mai, C. W., Lai, K. S., & Lim, S. H. E. (2018). Plant-Derived Antimicrobials: Insights into Mitigation of Antimicrobial Resistance. Records of Natural Products, 12(4).

CYPRESS

• Extracts of cypress showed antimicrobial and anti-parasitic activities in vitro.  From:  Zhang, J., Rahman, A. A., Jain, S., Jacob, M. R., Khan, S. I., Tekwani, B. L., & Ilias, M. (2012). Antimicrobial and antiparasitic abietane diterpenoids from Cupressus sempervirens. Research and reports in medicinal chemistry, 2(1), 1-6.

DILL

• The following essential oils were tested against a variety of microbes in a variety of environments:  cinnamon (Cinnamon zeylanicum), clove (Syzygium aromaticum), basil (Ocimum basillicum), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), dill (Anethum graveolens), and ginger (Zingiber officinalis).   From:  Lopez, P., Sanchez, C., Batlle, R., & Nerin, C. (2005). Solid-and vapor-phase antimicrobial activities of six essential oils: susceptibility of selected foodborne bacterial and fungal strains. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 53(17), 6939-6946.
• Carvone and limonene isolated from spearmint and dill were active against a wide spectrum of human pathogenic fungi and bacteria tested.From:  Aggarwal, K. K., Khanuja, S. P. S., Ahmad, A., Santha Kumar, T. R., Gupta, V. K., & Kumar, S. (2002). Antimicrobial activity profiles of the two enantiomers of limonene and carvone isolated from the oils of Mentha spicata and Anethum sowa. Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 17(1), 59-63.

EUCALYPTUS

• In this randomized double-blind trial with 100 ICU patients with with ventilation endotracheal tube, eucalyptus was effective in reducing pulmonary infection. From: Fallahi, M., Karimpour, H., AminiSaman, J., Mohammadi, S., Sharifi, A., Jahanbakhsh, A., … & Kawyannejad, R. (2019). Effect of eucalyptus incense on prevention of early and late ventilator-associated pneumonia: A randomized controlled double-blinded clinical trial. Journal of Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, 28(170), 64-73.
• Antimicrobial activities of lavender, thyme, peppermint, cajeput, cinnamon, clove, eucalyptus, sage, and tea tree were summarized.  From:  Wińska, K., Mączka, W., Łyczko, J., Grabarczyk, M., Czubaszek, A., & Szumny, A. (2019). Essential Oils as Antimicrobial Agents—Myth or Real Alternative?. Molecules, 24(11), 2130.
• Multiple eucalyptus species tested were antimicrobial against a range of microorganisms.  From:  Aldoghaim, F., Flematti, G., & Hammer, K. (2018). Antimicrobial Activity of Several Cineole-Rich Western Australian Eucalyptus Essential Oils. Microorganisms, 6(4), 122.
• Against 14 pathogenic bacteria and yeast specimens tested, the following plants showed broad spectrum antimicrobial activity:  Eucalyptus camuldulensis, Rosmarinus officinalis, Ecballium elaterium (squirting cucumber), Liquidambar orientalis (sweetgum), Cornus sanguinea (dogwood), Vitis vinifera (grape), Inula viscosa (fleabane), Hypericum perforatum (St. John’s Wort), and Punica granatum (pomegranate).  From:  Oskay, M., & Sarı, D. (2007). Antimicrobial screening of some Turkish medicinal plants. Pharmaceutical Biology, 45(3), 176-181.
• Polytoxinol, a formula containing tea tree and eucalyptus, was successful in an administered percutaneously treat of intractable MRSA infection of the lower tibia in an adult male.  From:  Sherry, E., Boeck, H., & Warnke, P. H. (2001). Percutaneous treatment of chronic MRSA osteomyelitis with a novel plant-derived antiseptic. BMC surgery, 1(1), 1.
• Cineole, citral, geraniol, linalool and menthol were tested against a variety of bacteria and fungi, showing a range of antimicrobial activity.  From:  Pattnaik, S., Subramanyam, V. R., Bapaji, M., & Kole, C. R. (1996). Antibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituents of essential oils. Microbios, 89(358), 39-46.
• Clove, cajeput, tea tree, naiouli, and eucalyptus showed varying degrees of activity against Penicillium commune. From: Tančinová, D., Foltinová, D., Mašková, Z., Štefániková, J., & Árvay, J. (2019). Effect of essential oils of Myrtaceae plants on the Penicillium commune. Potravinarstvo Slovak Journal of Food Sciences, 13(1), 604-613.
• Cinnamon and eucalyptus oils showed antimicrobial activity against oral pathogens. From: Fani, M. M., & Kohanteb, J. (2019). Inhibitory activity of Cinnamomum zeylanicum and eucalyptus globulus oils on Streptococcus mutans, Staphylococcus aureus, and Candida species isolated from patients with oral infections. Journal of Dentistry, 11(Supplement Winter 2011), 14-22.
• Blends with Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Daucus carota, Eucalyptus globulus, Rosmarinus officinalis, Syzygium aromaticum, and Origanum vulgare showed in vitro antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral activities against antibiotic resistant pathogens, candida strains, and both the H1N1 and HSV1 viruses. From: Brochot, A., Guilbot, A., Haddioui, L., & Roques, C. (2017). Antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral effects of three essential oil blends. MicrobiologyOpen, 6(4), e00459.

FENNEL

• Origanum onites, Mentha piperita, Juniperus exalsa, Chrysanthemum indicum, Lavandula hybrida, Rosa damascena, Echinophora tenuifolia, and Foeniculum vulgare were tested for antimicrobial activity. From:  Andoğan, B. C., Baydar, H., Kaya, S., Demirci, M., Özbaşar, D., & Mumcu, E. (2002). Antimicrobial activity and chemical composition of some essential oils. Archives of pharmacal research, 25(6), 860-864.

FIR

• The monoterpene alcohols in Douglas fir inhibited sheep and deer rumen microbial activity and included:  α-terpineol, terpinen-4-ol, linalool, citronellol, and fenchyl alcohol.  From:  Oh, H. K., Sakai, T., Jones, M. B., & Longhurst, W. M. (1967). Effect of various essential oils isolated from Douglas fir needles upon sheep and deer rumen microbial activity. Applied microbiology, 15(4), 777-784.

GARLIC

• The use of plant essential oils against antibiotic resistant microbes is discussed. Key essential oils include basil, cilantro, coriander, cinnamon, clove, curry, garlic, helichrysum, lavender, lemongrass, oregano, peppermint, and tea tree. From: Yang, S. K., Low, L. Y., Yap, P. S. X., Yusoff, K., Mai, C. W., Lai, K. S., & Lim, S. H. E. (2018). Plant-Derived Antimicrobials: Insights into Mitigation of Antimicrobial Resistance. Records of Natural Products, 12(4).
• Constituents from garlic: diallyl thiosulphinate (allicin), methyl allyl thiosulphinate, and allyl methyl thiosulphinate showed antibacterial and antifungal activities.  From:  Hughes, B. G., & Lawson, L. D. (1991). Antimicrobial effects of Allium sativum L.(garlic), Allium ampeloprasum L.(elephant garlic), and Allium cepa L.(onion), garlic compounds and commercial garlic supplement products. Phytotherapy Research, 5(4), 154-158.
• Ajoene, a constituent of garlic, showed strong antimicrobial activity against multiple organisms tested.  From:  Naganawa, R., Iwata, N., Ishikawa, K., Fukuda, H., Fujino, T., & Suzuki, A. (1996). Inhibition of microbial growth by ajoene, a sulfur-containing compound derived from garlic. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 62(11), 4238-4242.
• Garlic and tea tree were effective against oral microorganisms.  From:  Groppo, F. C., Ramacciato, J. C., Simoes, R. P., Florio, F. M., & Sartoratto, A. (2002). Antimicrobial activity of garlic, tea tree oil, and chlorhexidine against oral microorganisms. International dental journal, 52(6), 433-437.

GERANIUM

• The following commercially bought oils showed antimicrobial activity against multiple pathogens:  patchouli (Pogostemon cablin), myrrh (Commiphora myrrha), bergamot (Citrus bergamia), geranium (Geranium maculatum), sandalwood (Santalum album), ylang ylang (Cananga odorata), tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia), and lavender (Lavendula officinalis).   From:  Maudsley, F., & Kerr, K. G. (1999). Microbiological safety of essential oils used in complementary therapies and the activity of these compounds against bacterial and fungal pathogens. Supportive care in cancer, 7(2), 100-102.
• Cineole, citral, geraniol, linalool and menthol were tested against a variety of bacteria and fungi, showing a range of antimicrobial activity.  From:  Pattnaik, S., Subramanyam, V. R., Bapaji, M., & Kole, C. R. (1996). Antibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituents of essential oils. Microbios, 89(358), 39-46.
• Linoleic acid from the roots of a Pelargonium species was the most active constituent against tested mycobacteria.  From:  Seidel, V., & Taylor, P. W. (2004). In vitro activity of extracts and constituents of Pelagonium against rapidly growing mycobacteria. International journal of antimicrobial agents, 23(6), 613-619.
• Root extracts from two Pelargonium species were antibacterial and antifungal against tested pathogenic microbes.  From:  Mativandlela, S. P. N., Lall, N., & Meyer, J. J. M. (2006). Antibacterial, antifungal and antitubercular activity of (the roots of) Pelargonium reniforme (CURT) and Pelargonium sidoides (DC)(Geraniaceae) root extracts. South African Journal of Botany, 72(2), 232-237.

GINGER

• The following essential oils were tested against a variety of microbes in a variety of environments:  cinnamon (Cinnamon zeylanicum), clove (Syzygium aromaticum), basil (Ocimum basillicum), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), dill (Anethum graveolens), and ginger (Zingiber officinalis).   From:  Lopez, P., Sanchez, C., Batlle, R., & Nerin, C. (2005). Solid-and vapor-phase antimicrobial activities of six essential oils: susceptibility of selected foodborne bacterial and fungal strains. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 53(17), 6939-6946.

GRAPEFRUIT

• Various extracts of grapefruit peel were antimicrobial, antibacterial, and antifungal against tested pathogenic disease organisms. From: Okunowo, W. O., Oyedeji, O., Afolabi, L. O., & Matanmi, E. (2013). Essential oil of grape fruit (Citrus paradisi) peels and its antimicrobial activities. American Journal of Plant Sciences, 4(07), 1.

HELICHRYSUM

• The use of plant essential oils against antibiotic resistant microbes is discussed. Key essential oils include basil, cilantro, coriander, cinnamon, clove, curry, garlic, helichrysum, lavender, lemongrass, oregano, peppermint, and tea tree. From: Yang, S. K., Low, L. Y., Yap, P. S. X., Yusoff, K., Mai, C. W., Lai, K. S., & Lim, S. H. E. (2018). Plant-Derived Antimicrobials: Insights into Mitigation of Antimicrobial Resistance. Records of Natural Products, 12(4).
• Juniper and helichrysum essential oils had a combined activity against two mycobacterium in vitro. From: Peruč, D., Tićac, B., Abram, M., Broznić, D., Štifter, S., Staver, M. M., & Gobin, I. (2019). Synergistic potential of Juniperus communis and Helichrysum italicum essential oils against nontuberculous mycobacteria. Journal of medical microbiology, 68(5), 703-710.
• Helichrysum stoechas, Polygonum equisetiforme, Pulicaria crispa, Rosmarinus officinalis, and Thymus capitatus exhibited strongest activity against gram positive bacteria   H. stoechas. and P. harmala. exhibited the strongest activity against gram negative bacteria.  Peganum harmala, P. crispa, and T. capitatus showed strong anticandidal activity.From:  Abdelah Bogdadi, H. A., Kokoska, L., Havlik, J., Kloucek, P., Rada, V., & Vorisek, K. (2007). In Vitro. Antimicrobial Activity of Some Libyan Medicinal Plant Extracts. Pharmaceutical Biology, 45(5), 386-391.
• Essential oil from H. italicum demonstrated antibacterial, antifungal, and antimicrobial against multiple tested pathogens in vitro. From: Oliva, A., Garzoli, S., Sabatino, M., Tadić, V., Costantini, S., Ragno, R., & Božović, M. (2018). Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of essential oil of Helichrysum italicum (Roth) G. Don fil.(Asteraceae) from Montenegro. Natural product research, 1-4.
• Helichrysum italicum essential oil and its constituents of alpha pinene and limonene demonstrated in vitro anti-collagenase and anti-elastaste activities. From: Fraternale, D., Flamini, G., & Ascrizzi, R. (2019). In Vitro Anticollagenase and Antielastase Activities of Essential Oil of Helichrysum italicum subsp. italicum (Roth) G. Don. Journal of medicinal food.
• Extracts of H. arenarium showed antimicrobial activity against a variety of lower respiratory tract pathogens. From: Gradinaru, A. C., Silion, M., Trifan, A., Miron, A., & Aprotosoaie, A. C. (2014). Helichrysum arenarium subsp. arenarium: phenolic composition and antibacterial activity against lower respiratory tract pathogens. Natural product research, 28(22), 2076-2080.

HOREHOUND

• M. vulgare showed antimicrobial activity against some Gram (+) pathogenic bacteria and Botrytis cinerea fungi and also showed cytotoxic activities.  From:  Zarai, Z., Kadri, A., Chobba, I. B., Mansour, R. B., Bekir, A., Mejdoub, H., & Gharsallah, N. (2011). The in-vitro evaluation of antibacterial, antifungal and cytotoxic properties of Marrubium vulgare L. essential oil grown in Tunisia. Lipids in health and disease, 10(1), 161.

HYSSOP

• Origanum vulgare, Melissa officinalis, Rosmarinus officinalis, Ocimum basilicum, Salvia officinalis, and Hyssopus officinalis were test and O. vulgare extracts exhibited the highest antioxidant capacity, and the highest rosmarinic acid and polyphenolic contents. L. monocytogenes, S. aureus and C. albicans were pathogens affected by all six extracts. ​From: Benedec, D., Hanganu, D., Oniga, I., Tiperciuc, B., Olah, N. K., Raita, O., … & Vlase, L. (2015). Assessment of rosmarinic acid content in six Lamiaceae species extracts and their antioxidant and antimicrobial potential. Pak. J. Pharm. Sci, 28(6), 2297-2303.
• Hyssopus officinalis (hyssop), Ocimum basilicum (basil), and Teucrium chamaedrys (wall germander) demonstrated antioxidant and antimicrobial benefits.  From:  Vlase, L., Benedec, D., Hanganu, D., Damian, G., Csillag, I., Sevastre, B., … & Tilea, I. (2014). Evaluation of antioxidant and antimicrobial activities and phenolic profile for Hyssopus officinalis, Ocimum basilicum and Teucrium chamaedrys. Molecules, 19(5), 5490-5507.
• Origanum vulgare, Melissa officinalis, Rosmarinus officinalis, Ocimum basilicum, Salvia officinalis, and Hyssopus officinalis were test and O. vulgare extracts exhibited the highest antioxidant capacity, and the highest rosmarinic acid and polyphenolic contents. L. monocytogenes, S. aureus and C. albicans were pathogens affected by all six extracts. ​From: Benedec, D., Hanganu, D., Oniga, I., Tiperciuc, B., Olah, N. K., Raita, O., … & Vlase, L. (2015). Assessment of rosmarinic acid content in six Lamiaceae species extracts and their antioxidant and antimicrobial potential. Pak. J. Pharm. Sci, 28(6), 2297-2303.

JASMINE

• Jasminum sambac showed antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antibacterial activity in vitro.  From:  Abdoul-Latif, F., Edou, P., Eba, F., Mohamed, N., Ali, A., Djama, S., … & Dicko, M. (2010). Antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of essential oil and methanol extract of Jasminum sambac from Djibouti. African Journal of Plant Science, 4(3), 38-43.

JUNIPER

• Origanum onites, Mentha piperita, Juniperus exalsa, Chrysanthemum indicum, Lavandula hybrida, Rosa damascena, Echinophora tenuifolia, and Foeniculum vulgare were tested for antimicrobial activity. From:  Andoğan, B. C., Baydar, H., Kaya, S., Demirci, M., Özbaşar, D., & Mumcu, E. (2002). Antimicrobial activity and chemical composition of some essential oils. Archives of pharmacal research, 25(6), 860-864.
• Juniper and helichrysum essential oils had a combined activity against two mycobacterium in vitro. From: Peruč, D., Tićac, B., Abram, M., Broznić, D., Štifter, S., Staver, M. M., & Gobin, I. (2019). Synergistic potential of Juniperus communis and Helichrysum italicum essential oils against nontuberculous mycobacteria. Journal of medical microbiology, 68(5), 703-710.

KUNZEA

• Kunzea essential oil showed in vitro antimicrobial activity, some mosquito repelling activity in humans, and may be useful in treating skin fungal and bacterial infections based on a study on horses. From: Thomas, J. (2012). Kunzea oil: investigation of composition, bioactivity and therapeitic potential (Doctoral dissertation, University of Tasmania).

LAUREL

• Nine plant spice essential oils were tested on various microorganisms (Salmonella typhimurium, Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Yersinia enterocolitica, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida rugosa, Rhizopus oryzae and Aspergillus niger and showed antimicrobial activity and may be used to combat pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms, and improve shelf-life of foods.  They included: savory, laurel, oregano, basil, cumin, sea fennel, myrtle, and mint.  From:  Özcan, M., & Erkmen, O. (2001). Antimicrobial activity of the essential oils of Turkish plant spices. European Food Research and Technology, 212(6), 658-660.

LAVENDER

• The use of plant essential oils against antibiotic resistant microbes is discussed. Key essential oils include basil, cilantro, coriander, cinnamon, clove, curry, garlic, helichrysum, lavender, lemongrass, oregano, peppermint, and tea tree. From: Yang, S. K., Low, L. Y., Yap, P. S. X., Yusoff, K., Mai, C. W., Lai, K. S., & Lim, S. H. E. (2018). Plant-Derived Antimicrobials: Insights into Mitigation of Antimicrobial Resistance. Records of Natural Products, 12(4).
• Antimicrobial activities of lavender, thyme, peppermint, cajeput, cinnamon, clove, eucalyptus, sage, and tea tree were summarized.  From:  Wińska, K., Mączka, W., Łyczko, J., Grabarczyk, M., Czubaszek, A., & Szumny, A. (2019). Essential Oils as Antimicrobial Agents—Myth or Real Alternative?. Molecules, 24(11), 2130.
• The following commercially bought oils showed antimicrobial activity against multiple pathogens:  patchouli (Pogostemon cablin), myrrh (Commiphora myrrha), bergamot (Citrus bergamia), geranium (Geranium maculatum), sandalwood (Santalum album), ylang ylang (Cananga odorata), tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia), and lavender (Lavendula officinalis).   From:  Maudsley, F., & Kerr, K. G. (1999). Microbiological safety of essential oils used in complementary therapies and the activity of these compounds against bacterial and fungal pathogens. Supportive care in cancer, 7(2), 100-102.
• Lavandula officinalis, Melissa officinalis and Rosmarinus officinalis showed varying amounts of antimicrobial activity on the microbes tested.  From:  Larrondo, J. V., Agut, M., & Calvo-Torras, M. A. (1994). Antimicrobial activity of essences from labiates. Microbios, 82(332), 171-172.
• Cineole, citral, geraniol, linalool and menthol were tested against a variety of bacteria and fungi, showing a range of antimicrobial activity.  From:  Pattnaik, S., Subramanyam, V. R., Bapaji, M., & Kole, C. R. (1996). Antibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituents of essential oils. Microbios, 89(358), 39-46.

LAVENDIN

• Origanum onites, Mentha piperita, Juniperus exalsa, Chrysanthemum indicum, Lavandula hybrida, Rosa damascena, Echinophora tenuifolia, and Foeniculum vulgare were tested for antimicrobial activity. From:  Andoğan, B. C., Baydar, H., Kaya, S., Demirci, M., Özbaşar, D., & Mumcu, E. (2002). Antimicrobial activity and chemical composition of some essential oils. Archives of pharmacal research, 25(6), 860-864.
• Cineole, citral, geraniol, linalool and menthol were tested against a variety of bacteria and fungi, showing a range of antimicrobial activity.  From:  Pattnaik, S., Subramanyam, V. R., Bapaji, M., & Kole, C. R. (1996). Antibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituents of essential oils. Microbios, 89(358), 39-46.

LEMON

• Cananga odorata, Boswellia thurifera, Cymbopogon citratus, Marjorana hortensis, Ocimum basilicum, Rosmarinus officinalis, Cinnamomum zeylanicum and Citrus limon exhibited considerable inhibitory effect against all the bacteria and fungi tested, and also demonstrated antioxidant activity comparable with α-tocopherol and butylated hydroxytoluene.  From:  Baratta, M. T., Dorman, H. J., Deans, S. G., Figueiredo, A. C., Barroso, J. G., & Ruberto, G. (1998). Antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of some commercial essential oils. Flavour and fragrance journal, 13(4), 235-244.
• Cineole, citral, geraniol, linalool and menthol were tested against a variety of bacteria and fungi, showing a range of antimicrobial activity.  From:  Pattnaik, S., Subramanyam, V. R., Bapaji, M., & Kole, C. R. (1996). Antibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituents of essential oils. Microbios, 89(358), 39-46.

LEMONGRASS

• The use of plant essential oils against antibiotic resistant microbes is discussed. Key essential oils include basil, cilantro, coriander, cinnamon, clove, curry, garlic, helichrysum, lavender, lemongrass, oregano, peppermint, and tea tree. From: Yang, S. K., Low, L. Y., Yap, P. S. X., Yusoff, K., Mai, C. W., Lai, K. S., & Lim, S. H. E. (2018). Plant-Derived Antimicrobials: Insights into Mitigation of Antimicrobial Resistance. Records of Natural Products, 12(4).
• Cananga odorata, Boswellia thurifera, Cymbopogon citratus, Marjorana hortensis, Ocimum basilicum, Rosmarinus officinalis, Cinnamomum zeylanicum and Citrus limon exhibited considerable inhibitory effect against all the bacteria and fungi tested, and also demonstrated antioxidant activity comparable with α-tocopherol and butylated hydroxytoluene.  From:  Baratta, M. T., Dorman, H. J., Deans, S. G., Figueiredo, A. C., Barroso, J. G., & Ruberto, G. (1998). Antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of some commercial essential oils. Flavour and fragrance journal, 13(4), 235-244.

LICORICE

• Licoagrodione, a biflavonoid from licorice showed to have antimicrobial activity in vitro.  From:  Li, W., Asada, Y., & Yoshikawa, T. (1998). Antimicrobial flavonoids from Glycyrrhiza glabra hairy root cultures. Planta medica, 64(08), 746-747.

LITSEA

• The linalool type Litsea cubeba leaf essential oil was more antibacterial agaisnt the tested pathogens then the 1,8-cineole type. From: Nguyen, H. V., Meile, J. C., Lebrun, M., Caruso, D., Chu‐Ky, S., & Sarter, S. (2018). Litsea cubeba leaf essential oil from Vietnam: chemical diversity and its impacts on antibacterial activity. Letters in applied microbiology, 66(3), 207-214.
• Leaf and fruit essential oils from Litsea cubeba showed antimicrobial activities against tested pathogens, with fruit oil and its constituents being more effective. From: Saikia, A. K., Chetia, D., D’Arrigo, M., Smeriglio, A., Strano, T., & Ruberto, G. (2013). Screening of fruit and leaf essential oils of Litsea cubeba Pers. from north-east India–chemical composition and antimicrobial activity. Journal of essential oil research, 25(4), 330-338.
• Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anticancer activities were demonstrated from extracts of Litsea cubeba in vitro. From: Gogoi, R., Loying, R., Sarma, N., Munda, S., Pandey, S. K., & Lal, M. (2018). A comparative study on antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, genotoxicity, anti-microbial activities and chemical composition of fruit and leaf essential oils of Litsea cubeba Pers from North-east India. Industrial Crops and Products, 125, 131-139.

MARJORAM

• Extracts of O. majorana were effective against different pathogenic bacteria and fungi, and highly toxic against the growth of Aspergillus niger.   From;  Leeja, L., & Thoppil, J. E. (2007). Antimicrobial activity of methanol extract of Origanum majorana L.(Sweet marjoram). Journal of Environmental Biology, 28(1), 145.
• Cananga odorata, Boswellia thurifera, Cymbopogon citratus, Marjorana hortensis, Ocimum basilicum, Rosmarinus officinalis, Cinnamomum zeylanicum and Citrus limon exhibited considerable inhibitory effect against all the bacteria and fungi tested, and also demonstrated antioxidant activity comparable with α-tocopherol and butylated hydroxytoluene.  From:  Baratta, M. T., Dorman, H. J., Deans, S. G., Figueiredo, A. C., Barroso, J. G., & Ruberto, G. (1998). Antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of some commercial essential oils. Flavour and fragrance journal, 13(4), 235-244.
• Cineole, citral, geraniol, linalool and menthol were tested against a variety of bacteria and fungi, showing a range of antimicrobial activity.  From:  Pattnaik, S., Subramanyam, V. R., Bapaji, M., & Kole, C. R. (1996). Antibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituents of essential oils. Microbios, 89(358), 39-46.

MELISSA

• Origanum vulgare, Melissa officinalis, Rosmarinus officinalis, Ocimum basilicum, Salvia officinalis, and Hyssopus officinalis were test and O. vulgare extracts exhibited the highest antioxidant capacity, and the highest rosmarinic acid and polyphenolic contents. L. monocytogenes, S. aureus and C. albicans were pathogens affected by all six extracts. ​From: Benedec, D., Hanganu, D., Oniga, I., Tiperciuc, B., Olah, N. K., Raita, O., … & Vlase, L. (2015). Assessment of rosmarinic acid content in six Lamiaceae species extracts and their antioxidant and antimicrobial potential. Pak. J. Pharm. Sci, 28(6), 2297-2303.
• Lavandula officinalis, Melissa officinalis and Rosmarinus officinalis showed varying amounts of antimicrobial activity on the microbes tested.  From:  Larrondo, J. V., Agut, M., & Calvo-Torras, M. A. (1994). Antimicrobial activity of essences from labiates. Microbios, 82(332), 171-172.
• Origanum vulgare, Melissa officinalis, Rosmarinus officinalis, Ocimum basilicum, Salvia officinalis, and Hyssopus officinalis were test and O. vulgare extracts exhibited the highest antioxidant capacity, and the highest rosmarinic acid and polyphenolic contents. L. monocytogenes, S. aureus and C. albicans were pathogens affected by all six extracts. ​From: Benedec, D., Hanganu, D., Oniga, I., Tiperciuc, B., Olah, N. K., Raita, O., … & Vlase, L. (2015). Assessment of rosmarinic acid content in six Lamiaceae species extracts and their antioxidant and antimicrobial potential. Pak. J. Pharm. Sci, 28(6), 2297-2303.

MORINGA

• Thirteen tested moringa species demonstrated varying antioxidant and antimicrobial activities in vitro. From: Ndhlala, A. R., Mulaudzi, R., Ncube, B., Abdelgadir, H. A., Du Plooy, C. P., & Van Staden, J. (2014). Antioxidant, antimicrobial and phytochemical variations in thirteen Moringa oleifera Lam. cultivars. Molecules, 19(7), 10480-10494.

MOTHERWORT

• Lamiaceae plants were studied in vitro.  Plants including motherwort showed antimicrobial activity.  Active constituents included: ursolic acid, siderol and nepetalactone.  From:  Sattar, A. A., Bankova, V., Kujumgiev, A., Galabov, A., Ignatova, A., Todorova, C., & Popov, S. (1995). Chemical composition and biological activity of leaf exudates from some Lamiaceae plants. Die Pharmazie, 50(1), 62-65.

MYRRH

• The following commercially bought oils showed antimicrobial activity against multiple pathogens:  patchouli (Pogostemon cablin), myrrh (Commiphora myrrha), bergamot (Citrus bergamia), geranium (Geranium maculatum), sandalwood (Santalum album), ylang ylang (Cananga odorata), tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia), and lavender (Lavendula officinalis).   From:  Maudsley, F., & Kerr, K. G. (1999). Microbiological safety of essential oils used in complementary therapies and the activity of these compounds against bacterial and fungal pathogens. Supportive care in cancer, 7(2), 100-102.
• Myrrh essential oil and extracts were antimicroibial against multiple strains of the bacteria: S. aureus in vitro.  From: Adam, M. E., & Selim, S. A. (2013). Antimicrobial activity of essential oil and methanol extract from Commiphora molmol (Engl.) resin. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. App. Sci, 2(12), 1-6.
• Myrrh was just as antibacterial as marketing antibiotics against pathogenic strains of pathogenic strains of Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Candida albicans.  From:  Shaik, J., Vishakha, K., & Ramyasree, D. (2015). Evaluation of antibacterial activity of Commiphora myrrha against antibiotic resistant clinical pathogens. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biological Research, 3(3), 7.
• Myrrh gum resin showed antibacterial and antifungal action against tested microbes.  From:  Alhussaini, M. S., Saadabi, A. M., Alghonaim, M. I., & Ibrahim, K. E. (2015). An evaluation of the Antimicrobial activity of Commiphora myrrha Nees (Engl.) oleo-gum resins from Saudi Arabia. Journal of Medical Sciences, 15(4), 198.
• Antimicrobial activity of myrrh against gram negative bacteria was demonstrated in vitro.  From:  Chandrasekharnath, N., Mahlakshmi, Y. V., Jayalakshmi, L., Venkanna, B., & Uma, A. (2013). Screening and isolation of bioactive factors from Commiphora myrrha and evaluation of their antimicrobial activity. International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications, 3(2), 1291-1294.

MYRTLE

• Nine plant spice essential oils were tested on various microorganisms (Salmonella typhimurium, Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Yersinia enterocolitica, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida rugosa, Rhizopus oryzae and Aspergillus niger and showed antimicrobial activity and may be used to combat pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms, and improve shelf-life of foods.  They included: savory, laurel, oregano, basil, cumin, sea fennel, myrtle, and mint.  From:  Özcan, M., & Erkmen, O. (2001). Antimicrobial activity of the essential oils of Turkish plant spices. European Food Research and Technology, 212(6), 658-660.

NIAOULI

• Clove, cajeput, tea tree, naiouli, and eucalyptus showed varying degrees of activity against Penicillium commune. From: Tančinová, D., Foltinová, D., Mašková, Z., Štefániková, J., & Árvay, J. (2019). Effect of essential oils of Myrtaceae plants on the Penicillium commune. Potravinarstvo Slovak Journal of Food Sciences, 13(1), 604-613.

NONI

• Iridoids from noni fruit demonstrated antimicrobial activity against multiple tested bacteria.  From:  West, B. J., Palmer, S. K., Deng, S., & Palu, A. K. (2012). Antimicrobial activity of an iridoid rich extract from” morinda citrifolia” fruit. Current Research Journal of Biological Sciences, 4(1), 52-54.
• Particles from noni extracts were inhibitory against the following human pathogens:  Eschericia coli, Pseudomonas aeroginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Enterobacter aerogenes, Bacillus cereus and Enterococci sp.  From:  Sathishkumar, G., Gobinath, C., Karpagam, K., Hemamalini, V., Premkumar, K., & Sivaramakrishnan, S. (2012). Phyto-synthesis of silver nanoscale particles using Morinda citrifolia L. and its inhibitory activity against human pathogens. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces, 95, 235-240.

OLIVE (LEAF)

• Olive leaf extract showed antibacterial and antifungal activity related to phenolic constituents.  From:  Pereira, A. P., Ferreira, I. C., Marcelino, F., Valentão, P., Andrade, P. B., Seabra, R., … & Pereira, J. A. (2007). Phenolic compounds and antimicrobial activity of olive (Olea europaea L. Cv. Cobrançosa) leaves. Molecules, 12(5), 1153-1162.
• Olive leaf and its phenolic constituents have antioxidant and antimicrobial activity.  From:  Lee, O. H., & Lee, B. Y. (2010). Antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of individual and combined phenolics in Olea europaea leaf extract. Bioresource technology, 101(10), 3751-3754.
• Opeuropein (as found in olive leaf) showed activity against microbes causing intestinal or respiratory tract infections in man.  From:  Bisignano, G., Tomaino, A., Cascio, R. L., Crisafi, G., Uccella, N., & Saija, A. (1999). On the in‐vitro antimicrobial activity of oleuropein and hydroxytyrosol. Journal of pharmacy and pharmacology, 51(8), 971-974.

OREGANO

• The use of plant essential oils against antibiotic resistant microbes is discussed. Key essential oils include basil, cilantro, coriander, cinnamon, clove, curry, garlic, helichrysum, lavender, lemongrass, oregano, peppermint, and tea tree. From: Yang, S. K., Low, L. Y., Yap, P. S. X., Yusoff, K., Mai, C. W., Lai, K. S., & Lim, S. H. E. (2018). Plant-Derived Antimicrobials: Insights into Mitigation of Antimicrobial Resistance. Records of Natural Products, 12(4).
• Essential oils from anise, angelica, basil, carrot, celery, cardamom, coriander, dill weed, fennel, oregano, parsley, and rosemary were evaluated for antimicrobial activity. Oregano, basil, and coriander showed the highest activity.  From:  Elgayyar, M., Draughon, F. A., Golden, D. A., & Mount, J. R. (2001). Antimicrobial activity of essential oils from plants against selected pathogenic and saprophytic microorganisms. Journal of Food Protection®, 64(7), 1019-1024.
• Clove, cumin, origanum, and anise essential oils may be a  potential source of natural antioxidant and antimicrobial agents.  From:  Raeisi, M., Hashemi, M., Aminzare, M., Sadeghi, M., Jahani, T., Keshavarzi, H., … & Tepe, B. (2016). Comparative Evaluation of Phytochemical, Antioxidant, and Antibacterial Properties from the Essential Oils of Four Commonly Consuming Plants in Iran. Journal of food quality and hazards control, 3(3), 107-113.
• Origanum vulgare, Melissa officinalis, Rosmarinus officinalis, Ocimum basilicum, Salvia officinalis, and Hyssopus officinalis were test and O. vulgare extracts exhibited the highest antioxidant capacity, and the highest rosmarinic acid and polyphenolic contents. L. monocytogenes, S. aureus and C. albicans were pathogens affected by all six extracts. ​From: Benedec, D., Hanganu, D., Oniga, I., Tiperciuc, B., Olah, N. K., Raita, O., … & Vlase, L. (2015). Assessment of rosmarinic acid content in six Lamiaceae species extracts and their antioxidant and antimicrobial potential. Pak. J. Pharm. Sci, 28(6), 2297-2303.
• Nine plant spice essential oils were tested on various microorganisms (Salmonella typhimurium, Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Yersinia enterocolitica, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida rugosa, Rhizopus oryzae and Aspergillus niger and showed antimicrobial activity and may be used to combat pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms, and improve shelf-life of foods.  They included: savory, laurel, oregano, basil, cumin, sea fennel, myrtle, and mint.  From:  Özcan, M., & Erkmen, O. (2001). Antimicrobial activity of the essential oils of Turkish plant spices. European Food Research and Technology, 212(6), 658-660.
• Oregano, coriander, and basil essential oil showed the greatest inhibition to the other bacteria and fungi tested. Anise oil was not particularly inhibitory to bacteria but was highly inhibitory to molds. From:  Elgayyar, M., Draughon, F. A., Golden, D. A., & Mount, J. R. (2001). Antimicrobial activity of essential oils from plants against selected pathogenic and saprophytic microorganisms. Journal of Food Protection®, 64(7), 1019-1024.
• Origanum onites, Mentha piperita, Juniperus exalsa, Chrysanthemum indicum, Lavandula hybrida, Rosa damascena, Echinophora tenuifolia, and Foeniculum vulgare were tested for antimicrobial activity. From:  Andoğan, B. C., Baydar, H., Kaya, S., Demirci, M., Özbaşar, D., & Mumcu, E. (2002). Antimicrobial activity and chemical composition of some essential oils. Archives of pharmacal research, 25(6), 860-864.
• The antimicrobial activity of of thymol, carvacrol, limonene, cinnamaldehyde, and eugenol were assessed.  From:  Di Pasqua, R., Hoskins, N., Betts, G., & Mauriello, G. (2006). Changes in membrane fatty acids composition of microbial cells induced by addiction of thymol, carvacrol, limonene, cinnamaldehyde, and eugenol in the growing media. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 54(7), 2745-2749.
• Origanum vulgare, Melissa officinalis, Rosmarinus officinalis, Ocimum basilicum, Salvia officinalis, and Hyssopus officinalis were test and O. vulgare extracts exhibited the highest antioxidant capacity, and the highest rosmarinic acid and polyphenolic contents. L. monocytogenes, S. aureus and C. albicans were pathogens affected by all six extracts. ​From: Benedec, D., Hanganu, D., Oniga, I., Tiperciuc, B., Olah, N. K., Raita, O., … & Vlase, L. (2015). Assessment of rosmarinic acid content in six Lamiaceae species extracts and their antioxidant and antimicrobial potential. Pak. J. Pharm. Sci, 28(6), 2297-2303.
• Blends with Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Daucus carota, Eucalyptus globulus, Rosmarinus officinalis, Syzygium aromaticum, and Origanum vulgare showed in vitro antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral activities against antibiotic resistant pathogens, candida strains, and both the H1N1 and HSV1 viruses. From: Brochot, A., Guilbot, A., Haddioui, L., & Roques, C. (2017). Antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral effects of three essential oil blends. MicrobiologyOpen, 6(4), e00459.

PARSLEY

• Furocoumarins from parsley showed antimicrobial activity against multiple tested organisms.  From:  Manderfeld, M. M., Schafer, H. W., Davidson, P. M., & Zottola, E. A. (1997). Isolation and identification of antimicrobial furocoumarins from parsley. Journal of food protection, 60(1), 72-77.

PATCHOULI

• Patchouli essential oil treatments used in French hospitals were antimicrobial against HIV/AIDs opportunistic infections.  From:  Buckle, J. (2002). Clinical aromatherapy and AIDS. Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 13(3), 81-99.
• The following commercially bought oils showed antimicrobial activity against multiple pathogens:  patchouli (Pogostemon cablin), myrrh (Commiphora myrrha), bergamot (Citrus bergamia), geranium (Geranium maculatum), sandalwood (Santalum album), ylang ylang (Cananga odorata), tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia), and lavender (Lavendula officinalis).   From:  Maudsley, F., & Kerr, K. G. (1999). Microbiological safety of essential oils used in complementary therapies and the activity of these compounds against bacterial and fungal pathogens. Supportive care in cancer, 7(2), 100-102.

PEPPERMINT

• The use of plant essential oils against antibiotic resistant microbes is discussed. Key essential oils include basil, cilantro, coriander, cinnamon, clove, curry, garlic, helichrysum, lavender, lemongrass, oregano, peppermint, and tea tree. From: Yang, S. K., Low, L. Y., Yap, P. S. X., Yusoff, K., Mai, C. W., Lai, K. S., & Lim, S. H. E. (2018). Plant-Derived Antimicrobials: Insights into Mitigation of Antimicrobial Resistance. Records of Natural Products, 12(4).
• Antimicrobial activities of lavender, thyme, peppermint, cajeput, cinnamon, clove, eucalyptus, sage, and tea tree were summarized.  From:  Wińska, K., Mączka, W., Łyczko, J., Grabarczyk, M., Czubaszek, A., & Szumny, A. (2019). Essential Oils as Antimicrobial Agents—Myth or Real Alternative?. Molecules, 24(11), 2130.
• Nine plant spice essential oils were tested on various microorganisms (Salmonella typhimurium, Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Yersinia enterocolitica, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida rugosa, Rhizopus oryzae and Aspergillus niger and showed antimicrobial activity and may be used to combat pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms, and improve shelf-life of foods.  They included: savory, laurel, oregano, basil, cumin, sea fennel, myrtle, and mint.  From:  Özcan, M., & Erkmen, O. (2001). Antimicrobial activity of the essential oils of Turkish plant spices. European Food Research and Technology, 212(6), 658-660.
• Origanum onites, Mentha piperita, Juniperus exalsa, Chrysanthemum indicum, Lavandula hybrida, Rosa damascena, Echinophora tenuifolia, and Foeniculum vulgare were tested for antimicrobial activity. From:  Andoğan, B. C., Baydar, H., Kaya, S., Demirci, M., Özbaşar, D., & Mumcu, E. (2002). Antimicrobial activity and chemical composition of some essential oils. Archives of pharmacal research, 25(6), 860-864.

POMEGRANATE

• Against 14 pathogenic bacteria and yeast specimens tested, the following plants showed broad spectrum antimicrobial activity:  Eucalyptus camuldulensis, Rosmarinus officinalis, Ecballium elaterium (squirting cucumber), Liquidambar orientalis (sweetgum), Cornus sanguinea (dogwood), Vitis vinifera (grape), Inula viscosa (fleabane), Hypericum perforatum (St. John’s Wort), and Punica granatum (pomegranate).  From:  Oskay, M., & Sarı, D. (2007). Antimicrobial screening of some Turkish medicinal plants. Pharmaceutical Biology, 45(3), 176-181.

RASPBERRIES / BERRIES

• Raspberries inhibit the growth of a variety of bacteria and the yeast Candida albicans.  From:  Cavanagh, H. M., Hipwell, M., & Wilkinson, J. M. (2003). Antibacterial activity of berry fruits used for culinary purposes. Journal of medicinal food, 6(1), 57-61.
• All berry extracts tested  showed strong antimicrobial activity against Gram-negative bacteria related to flavonoids and phenolic acids; raspberry had the strongest antimicrobial activity. From:  Puupponen‐Pimiä, R., Nohynek, L., Meier, C., Kähkönen, M., Heinonen, M., Hopia, A., & Oksman‐Caldentey, K. M. (2001). Antimicrobial properties of phenolic compounds from berries. Journal of applied microbiology, 90(4), 494-507.

ROSE

• Origanum onites, Mentha piperita, Juniperus exalsa, Chrysanthemum indicum, Lavandula hybrida, Rosa damascena, Echinophora tenuifolia, and Foeniculum vulgare were tested for antimicrobial activity. From:  Andoğan, B. C., Baydar, H., Kaya, S., Demirci, M., Özbaşar, D., & Mumcu, E. (2002). Antimicrobial activity and chemical composition of some essential oils. Archives of pharmacal research, 25(6), 860-864.

ROSEMARY

• Cananga odorata, Boswellia thurifera, Cymbopogon citratus, Marjorana hortensis, Ocimum basilicum, Rosmarinus officinalis, Cinnamomum zeylanicum and Citrus limon exhibited considerable inhibitory effect against all the bacteria and fungi tested, and also demonstrated antioxidant activity comparable with α-tocopherol and butylated hydroxytoluene.  From:  Baratta, M. T., Dorman, H. J., Deans, S. G., Figueiredo, A. C., Barroso, J. G., & Ruberto, G. (1998). Antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of some commercial essential oils. Flavour and fragrance journal, 13(4), 235-244.
• Helichrysum stoechas, Polygonum equisetiforme, Pulicaria crispa, Rosmarinus officinalis, and Thymus capitatus exhibited strongest activity against gram positive bacteria   H. stoechas. and P. harmala. exhibited the strongest activity against gram negative bacteria.  Peganum harmala, P. crispa, and T. capitatus showed strong anticandidal activity.From:  Abdelah Bogdadi, H. A., Kokoska, L., Havlik, J., Kloucek, P., Rada, V., & Vorisek, K. (2007). In Vitro. Antimicrobial Activity of Some Libyan Medicinal Plant Extracts. Pharmaceutical Biology, 45(5), 386-391.
• Rosemary and sage were tested against against 13 bacterial strains 6 fungi, and 5 dermatomycetes and showed strong antimicrobial activity.  Rosemary also showed strong antioxidant activities.  From:  Bozin, B., Mimica-Dukic, N., Samojlik, I., & Jovin, E. (2007). Antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of rosemary and sage (Rosmarinus officinalis L. and Salvia officinalis L., Lamiaceae) essential oils. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 55(19), 7879-7885.
• The following essential oils were tested against a variety of microbes in a variety of environments:  cinnamon (Cinnamon zeylanicum), clove (Syzygium aromaticum), basil (Ocimum basillicum), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), dill (Anethum graveolens), and ginger (Zingiber officinalis).   From:  Lopez, P., Sanchez, C., Batlle, R., & Nerin, C. (2005). Solid-and vapor-phase antimicrobial activities of six essential oils: susceptibility of selected foodborne bacterial and fungal strains. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 53(17), 6939-6946.
• Lavandula officinalis, Melissa officinalis and Rosmarinus officinalis showed varying amounts of antimicrobial activity on the microbes tested.  From:  Larrondo, J. V., Agut, M., & Calvo-Torras, M. A. (1994). Antimicrobial activity of essences from labiates. Microbios, 82(332), 171-172.
• Rosemary oil may be useful in treating gram positive, fungal, and drug-resistant infections.  From:  Luqman, S., Dwivedi, G. R., Darokar, M. P., Kalra, A., & Khanuja, S. P. (2007). Potential of rosemary oil to be used in drug-resistant infections. Alternative therapies in health and medicine, 13(5), 54.
• Rosemary extract and its rosmarinic acid constituent showed antioxidant and antimicrobial activities.  From:  Moreno, S., Scheyer, T., Romano, C. S., & Vojnov, A. A. (2006). Antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of rosemary extracts linked to their polyphenol composition. Free radical research, 40(2), 223-231.
• The following essential oils demonstrated an antimicrobial effect:  Satureja montana (winter savory), Rosmarinus officinalis (rosemary), Thymus vulgaris (thyme), and Calamintha nepeta (calamint).  From:  Panizzi, L., Flamini, G., Cioni, P. L., & Morelli, I. (1993). Composition and antimicrobial properties of essential oils of four Mediterranean Lamiaceae. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 39(3), 167-170.
• Against 14 pathogenic bacteria and yeast specimens tested, the following plants showed broad spectrum antimicrobial activity:  Eucalyptus camuldulensis, Rosmarinus officinalis, Ecballium elaterium (squirting cucumber), Liquidambar orientalis (sweetgum), Cornus sanguinea (dogwood), Vitis vinifera (grape), Inula viscosa (fleabane), Hypericum perforatum (St. John’s Wort), and Punica granatum (pomegranate).  From:  Oskay, M., & Sarı, D. (2007). Antimicrobial screening of some Turkish medicinal plants. Pharmaceutical Biology, 45(3), 176-181.
• Cineole, citral, geraniol, linalool and menthol were tested against a variety of bacteria and fungi, showing a range of antimicrobial activity.  From:  Pattnaik, S., Subramanyam, V. R., Bapaji, M., & Kole, C. R. (1996). Antibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituents of essential oils. Microbios, 89(358), 39-46.
• Rosemary extracts were antimicrobial against oral microbes and showed anti-inflammatory action in vitro.  From:  de Oliveira, J. R., de Jesus, D., Figueira, L. W., de Oliveira, F. E., Pacheco Soares, C., Camargo, S. E. A., … & de Oliveira, L. D. (2017). Biological activities of Rosmarinus officinalis L.(rosemary) extract as analyzed in microorganisms and cells. Experimental Biology and Medicine, 242(6), 625-634.
• Origanum vulgare, Melissa officinalis, Rosmarinus officinalis, Ocimum basilicum, Salvia officinalis, and Hyssopus officinalis were test and O. vulgare extracts exhibited the highest antioxidant capacity, and the highest rosmarinic acid and polyphenolic contents. L. monocytogenes, S. aureus and C. albicans were pathogens affected by all six extracts. ​From: Benedec, D., Hanganu, D., Oniga, I., Tiperciuc, B., Olah, N. K., Raita, O., … & Vlase, L. (2015). Assessment of rosmarinic acid content in six Lamiaceae species extracts and their antioxidant and antimicrobial potential. Pak. J. Pharm. Sci, 28(6), 2297-2303.
• Blends with Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Daucus carota, Eucalyptus globulus, Rosmarinus officinalis, Syzygium aromaticum, and Origanum vulgare showed in vitro antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral activities against antibiotic resistant pathogens, candida strains, and both the H1N1 and HSV1 viruses. From: Brochot, A., Guilbot, A., Haddioui, L., & Roques, C. (2017). Antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral effects of three essential oil blends. MicrobiologyOpen, 6(4), e00459.

SAGE

• Antimicrobial activities of lavender, thyme, peppermint, cajeput, cinnamon, clove, eucalyptus, sage, and tea tree were summarized.  From:  Wińska, K., Mączka, W., Łyczko, J., Grabarczyk, M., Czubaszek, A., & Szumny, A. (2019). Essential Oils as Antimicrobial Agents—Myth or Real Alternative?. Molecules, 24(11), 2130.
• Origanum vulgare, Melissa officinalis, Rosmarinus officinalis, Ocimum basilicum, Salvia officinalis, and Hyssopus officinalis were test and O. vulgare extracts exhibited the highest antioxidant capacity, and the highest rosmarinic acid and polyphenolic contents. L. monocytogenes, S. aureus and C. albicans were pathogens affected by all six extracts. ​From: Benedec, D., Hanganu, D., Oniga, I., Tiperciuc, B., Olah, N. K., Raita, O., … & Vlase, L. (2015). Assessment of rosmarinic acid content in six Lamiaceae species extracts and their antioxidant and antimicrobial potential. Pak. J. Pharm. Sci, 28(6), 2297-2303.
• Salvia fructicosa essential oil and its isolated components thujone and 1,8-cineole exhibited antimicrobial activity against eight bacterial strains, and the oil showed antiviral and cytotoxic capabilities.  From:  Sivropoulou, A., Nikolaou, C., Papanikolaou, E., Kokkini, S., Lanaras, T., & Arsenakis, M. (1997). Antimicrobial, cytotoxic, and antiviral activities of Salvia fructicosa essential oil. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 45(8), 3197-3201.
• Rosemary and sage were tested against against 13 bacterial strains 6 fungi, and 5 dermatomycetes and showed strong antimicrobial activity.  Rosemary also showed strong antioxidant activities.  From:  Bozin, B., Mimica-Dukic, N., Samojlik, I., & Jovin, E. (2007). Antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of rosemary and sage (Rosmarinus officinalis L. and Salvia officinalis L., Lamiaceae) essential oils. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 55(19), 7879-7885.

SAVORY

• Nine plant spice essential oils were tested on various microorganisms (Salmonella typhimurium, Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Yersinia enterocolitica, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida rugosa, Rhizopus oryzae and Aspergillus niger and showed antimicrobial activity and may be used to combat pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms, and improve shelf-life of foods.  They included: savory, laurel, oregano, basil, cumin, sea fennel, myrtle, and mint.  From:  Özcan, M., & Erkmen, O. (2001). Antimicrobial activity of the essential oils of Turkish plant spices. European Food Research and Technology, 212(6), 658-660.
• The following essential oils demonstrated an antimicrobial effect:  Satureja montana (winter savory), Rosmarinus officinalis (rosemary), Thymus vulgaris (thyme), and Calamintha nepeta (calamint).  From:  Panizzi, L., Flamini, G., Cioni, P. L., & Morelli, I. (1993). Composition and antimicrobial properties of essential oils of four Mediterranean Lamiaceae. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 39(3), 167-170.

SPEARMINT

• Carvone and limonene isolated from spearmint and dill were active against a wide spectrum of human pathogenic fungi and bacteria tested.From:  Aggarwal, K. K., Khanuja, S. P. S., Ahmad, A., Santha Kumar, T. R., Gupta, V. K., & Kumar, S. (2002). Antimicrobial activity profiles of the two enantiomers of limonene and carvone isolated from the oils of Mentha spicata and Anethum sowa. Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 17(1), 59-63.

TEA TREE

• The use of plant essential oils against antibiotic resistant microbes is discussed. Key essential oils include basil, cilantro, coriander, cinnamon, clove, curry, garlic, helichrysum, lavender, lemongrass, oregano, peppermint, and tea tree. From: Yang, S. K., Low, L. Y., Yap, P. S. X., Yusoff, K., Mai, C. W., Lai, K. S., & Lim, S. H. E. (2018). Plant-Derived Antimicrobials: Insights into Mitigation of Antimicrobial Resistance. Records of Natural Products, 12(4).
• Antimicrobial activities of lavender, thyme, peppermint, cajeput, cinnamon, clove, eucalyptus, sage, and tea tree were summarized.  From:  Wińska, K., Mączka, W., Łyczko, J., Grabarczyk, M., Czubaszek, A., & Szumny, A. (2019). Essential Oils as Antimicrobial Agents—Myth or Real Alternative?. Molecules, 24(11), 2130.
• Tea tree oil demonstrates broad spectrum antimicrobial activity against gram negative bacteria: E. coli, gram positive bacteria: Staph. aureus, and Candida albicans by disrupting  the permeability barrier of microbial cell membranes.  From:  Cox, S. D., Mann, C. M., Markham, J. L., Bell, H. C., Gustafson, J. E., Warmington, J. R., & Wyllie, S. G. (2000). The mode of antimicrobial action of the essential oil of Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree oil). Journal of applied microbiology, 88(1), 170-175.
• The following commercially bought oils showed antimicrobial activity against multiple pathogens:  patchouli (Pogostemon cablin), myrrh (Commiphora myrrha), bergamot (Citrus bergamia), geranium (Geranium maculatum), sandalwood (Santalum album), ylang ylang (Cananga odorata), tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia), and lavender (Lavendula officinalis).   From:  Maudsley, F., & Kerr, K. G. (1999). Microbiological safety of essential oils used in complementary therapies and the activity of these compounds against bacterial and fungal pathogens. Supportive care in cancer, 7(2), 100-102.
• Tea tree oil and its terpinen-4-ol constituent showed strong antimicrobial activity against tested pathogens.  From: Carson, C. F., & Riley, T. V. (1995). Antimicrobial activity of the major components of the essential oil of Melaleuca alternifolia. Journal of applied bacteriology, 78(3), 264-269.
• The study showed antimicrobial activity of tea tree oil resulted from interrupting the permeability barrier in the microbes: E. coli, Staph. aureus and C. albicans.  From:  Cox, S. D., Mann, C. M., Markham, J. L., Bell, H. C., Gustafson, J. E., Warmington, J. R., & Wyllie, S. G. (2000). The mode of antimicrobial action of the essential oil of Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree oil). Journal of applied microbiology, 88(1), 170-175.
• Tea tree oil efficiently killed S. aureus in the stationary growth phase in biofilms.  From:  Kwieciński, J., Eick, S., & Wójcik, K. (2009). Effects of tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) oil on Staphylococcus aureus in biofilms and stationary growth phase. International journal of antimicrobial agents, 33(4), 343-347.
• Lysostaphin and tea tree oil showed action against methicillin resistant S. aureus.  From:  LaPlante, K. L. (2007). In vitro activity of lysostaphin, mupirocin, and tea tree oil against clinical methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Diagnostic microbiology and infectious disease, 57(4), 413-418.
• Garlic and tea tree were effective against oral microorganisms.  From:  Groppo, F. C., Ramacciato, J. C., Simoes, R. P., Florio, F. M., & Sartoratto, A. (2002). Antimicrobial activity of garlic, tea tree oil, and chlorhexidine against oral microorganisms. International dental journal, 52(6), 433-437.
• Polytoxinol, a formula containing tea tree and eucalyptus, was successful in an administered percutaneously treat of intractable MRSA infection of the lower tibia in an adult male.  From:  Sherry, E., Boeck, H., & Warnke, P. H. (2001). Percutaneous treatment of chronic MRSA osteomyelitis with a novel plant-derived antiseptic. BMC surgery, 1(1), 1.
• Clove, cajeput, tea tree, naiouli, and eucalyptus showed varying degrees of activity against Penicillium commune. From: Tančinová, D., Foltinová, D., Mašková, Z., Štefániková, J., & Árvay, J. (2019). Effect of essential oils of Myrtaceae plants on the Penicillium commune. Potravinarstvo Slovak Journal of Food Sciences, 13(1), 604-613.
• The antimicrobial activities of Melaleuca ssp is reviewed. From: Sharifi‐Rad, J., Salehi, B., Varoni, E. M., Sharopov, F., Yousaf, Z., Ayatollahi, S. A., … & Iriti, M. (2017). Plants of the Melaleuca genus as antimicrobial agents: From farm to pharmacy. Phytotherapy Research, 31(10), 1475-1494.

THYME

• Antimicrobial activities of lavender, thyme, peppermint, cajeput, cinnamon, clove, eucalyptus, sage, and tea tree were summarized.  From:  Wińska, K., Mączka, W., Łyczko, J., Grabarczyk, M., Czubaszek, A., & Szumny, A. (2019). Essential Oils as Antimicrobial Agents—Myth or Real Alternative?. Molecules, 24(11), 2130.
• Helichrysum stoechas, Polygonum equisetiforme, Pulicaria crispa, Rosmarinus officinalis, and Thymus capitatus exhibited strongest activity against gram positive bacteria   H. stoechas. and P. harmala. exhibited the strongest activity against gram negative bacteria.  Peganum harmala, P. crispa, and T. capitatus showed strong anticandidal activity.From:  Abdelah Bogdadi, H. A., Kokoska, L., Havlik, J., Kloucek, P., Rada, V., & Vorisek, K. (2007). In Vitro. Antimicrobial Activity of Some Libyan Medicinal Plant Extracts. Pharmaceutical Biology, 45(5), 386-391.
• The following essential oils demonstrated an antimicrobial effect:  Satureja montana (winter savory), Rosmarinus officinalis (rosemary), Thymus vulgaris (thyme), and Calamintha nepeta (calamint).  From:  Panizzi, L., Flamini, G., Cioni, P. L., & Morelli, I. (1993). Composition and antimicrobial properties of essential oils of four Mediterranean Lamiaceae. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 39(3), 167-170.
• Antimicrobial activity and composition of a variety of thyme species were assessed.  From:  Azaz, A. D., Irtem, H. A., Kurkcuoǧlu, M., & Can Baser, K. H. (2004). Composition and the in vitro antimicrobial activities of the essential oils of some Thymus species. Zeitschrift für Naturforschung C, 59(1-2), 75-80.
• Thyme and cumin essential oils contained the strongest antimicrobial activity against a variety of tested pathogens in vitro.  From:  Farag, R. S., Daw, Z. Y., Hewedi, F. M., & El-Baroty, G. S. A. (1989). Antimicrobial activity of some Egyptian spice essential oils. Journal of food protection, 52(9), 665-667.
• The antimicrobial activity of of thymol, carvacrol, limonene, cinnamaldehyde, and eugenol were assessed.  From:  Di Pasqua, R., Hoskins, N., Betts, G., & Mauriello, G. (2006). Changes in membrane fatty acids composition of microbial cells induced by addiction of thymol, carvacrol, limonene, cinnamaldehyde, and eugenol in the growing media. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 54(7), 2745-2749.
• Thymus algeriensis with the following major components: linalool (47.3%), thymol (29.2%) and p-cymene (6.8%), showed antifungal and antibacterial activity against tested organisms.  From:  Dob, T., Dahmane, D., Benabdelkader, T., & Chelghoum, C. (2006). Studies on the essential oil composition and antimicrobial activity of Thymus algeriensis Boiss. et Reut. International Journal of Aromatherapy, 16(2), 95-100.

TURMERIC

• Extracts of black pepper and turmeric and their piperine and curcumin constituents demonstrated in vitro antioxidant and antimicrobial activity. From: de Queiroz Cancian, M. A., de Almeida, F. G., Terhaag, M. M., de Oliveira, A. G., de Souza Rocha, T., & Spinosa, W. A. (2018). Curcuma longa L.-and Piper nigrum-based hydrolysate, with high dextrose content, shows antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. LWT, 96, 386-394.

YELLOW DOCK

• Antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of differing yellow dock preparations (ether, ethanol, or hot water) were analyzed.  From:  Yıldırım, A., Mavi, A., & Kara, A. A. (2001). Determination of antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of Rumex crispus L. extracts. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 49(8), 4083-4089.
• Essential oils from R. crispus and R. cristatus showed antimicrobial and antioxidant activities.  From:  Avci, E., Avci, G. A., Kose, D. A., Emniyet, A. A., & Suicmez, M. (2014). In vitro antimicrobial and antioxidant activities and GC/MS analysis of the essential oils of Rumex crispus and Rumex cristatus. Hacettepe J. Biol. & Chem, 42(2), 193-199

YLANG YLANG

• Cananga odorata, Boswellia thurifera, Cymbopogon citratus, Marjorana hortensis, Ocimum basilicum, Rosmarinus officinalis, Cinnamomum zeylanicum and Citrus limon exhibited considerable inhibitory effect against all the bacteria and fungi tested, and also demonstrated antioxidant activity comparable with α-tocopherol and butylated hydroxytoluene.  From:  Baratta, M. T., Dorman, H. J., Deans, S. G., Figueiredo, A. C., Barroso, J. G., & Ruberto, G. (1998). Antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of some commercial essential oils. Flavour and fragrance journal, 13(4), 235-244.
• The following commercially bought oils showed antimicrobial activity against multiple pathogens:  patchouli (Pogostemon cablin), myrrh (Commiphora myrrha), bergamot (Citrus bergamia), geranium (Geranium maculatum), sandalwood (Santalum album), ylang ylang (Cananga odorata), tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia), and lavender (Lavendula officinalis).   From:  Maudsley, F., & Kerr, K. G. (1999). Microbiological safety of essential oils used in complementary therapies and the activity of these compounds against bacterial and fungal pathogens. Supportive care in cancer, 7(2), 100-102.

Compiled by: Kathy Sadowski

Last Updated: 3/24/2020