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                        Anti-fungal

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                        Certain herbs are known for their anti-fungal actions.  Most research studies have been in vitro; more human studies are necessary.

                        Recipes to Help with Fungal Infections

                        Blog Articles

                        green cleaning Green Cleaning
                        preservatives Natural Preservatives & Homemade Products
                        Peppermint as an Antimicrobial
                        cinnamaldehyde Research on the Cinnamaldehyde Constituent
                        Rosemary for Skin Irritations

                        RESEARCH

                        The listings of research below represent a compilation of scientific articles found on the topic, with a very brief overview description of each article/study.  This compilation of research articles does not necessarily imply that there are adequate results to demonstrate safe and/or effective human use of any herb listed.

                        Please note:  This is just a partial list of studies found.  For more antifungal studies, go to each herb’s research page.

                        GENERAL

                        • In this study, 82 essential oils were tested and showed varying antifungal activities against Aspergillus niger, Candida albicans, and Cryptococcus neoformans. From: Powers, C. N., Satyal, P., Mayo, J. A., McFeeters, H., & McFeeters, R. L. (2019). Bigger Data Approach to Analysis of Essential Oils and Their Antifungal Activity against Aspergillus niger, Candida albicans, and Cryptococcus neoformans. Molecules, 24(16), 2868.
                        • A thorough review of research on the antimicrobial, antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral activities of essential oils was provided.  From:  Reichling, J., Schnitzler, P., Suschke, U., & Saller, R. (2009). Essential oils of aromatic plants with antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, and cytotoxic properties–an overview. Complementary Medicine Research, 16(2), 79-90.

                        AJOWAN

                        • Strong fumigant antifungal activities was demonstrated by ajowan (Trachyspermum ammi), and allspice (Pimenta dioica) oils and their thymol and eugenol constituents against the following three Aspergillus species: A. ochraceus, A. parasiticus, and A. niger.  From:  Kim, E., Oh, C. S., Koh, S. H., Kim, H. S., Kang, K. S., Park, P. S., … & Park, I. K. (2016). Antifungal activities after vaporization of ajowan (Trachyspermum ammi) and allspice (Pimenta dioica) essential oils and blends of their constituents against three Aspergillus species. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 28(3), 252-259.
                        • Cymbopogon martinii (ginger grass oil), Cymbopogon oliveri, Cymbopogon sp. (rosa sofia oil) and Trachyspermum ammi (ajowan) exhibited strong fungitoxicity against Helminthosporium oryzae and were more active than some of the prevalent synthetic fungicides, and may be useful as a natural fungicide.  From:  Singh, A. K., Dikshit, A., Sharma, M. L., & Dixit, S. N. (1980). Fungitoxic activity of some essential oils. Economic Botany, 34(2), 186-190.
                        • Aflotoxin production of tested fungi was prohibited by rosemary and ajowan extracts and could be used to preserve food and prevent toxigenic fungal infection. Rasooli, I., Fakoor, M. H., Yadegarinia, D., Gachkar, L., Allameh, A., & Rezaei, M. B. (2008). Antimycotoxigenic characteristics of Rosmarinus officinalis and Trachyspermum copticum L. essential oils. International journal of food microbiology, 122(1), 135-139.

                        ALLSPICE

                        • Strong fumigant antifungal activities was demonstrated by ajowan (Trachyspermum ammi), and allspice (Pimenta dioica) oils and their thymol and eugenol constituents against the following three Aspergillus species: A. ochraceus, A. parasiticus, and A. niger.  From:  Kim, E., Oh, C. S., Koh, S. H., Kim, H. S., Kang, K. S., Park, P. S., … & Park, I. K. (2016). Antifungal activities after vaporization of ajowan (Trachyspermum ammi) and allspice (Pimenta dioica) essential oils and blends of their constituents against three Aspergillus species. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 28(3), 252-259.

                        ANGELICA

                        • Angelica extracts were effective against mold in walnuts.  From:  Prakash, B., Singh, P., Goni, R., Raina, A. K. P., & Dubey, N. K. (2015). Efficacy of Angelica archangelica essential oil, phenyl ethyl alcohol and α-terpineol against isolated molds from walnut and their antiaflatoxigenic and antioxidant activity. Journal of food science and technology, 52(4), 2220-2228.
                        • Essential oil from the aerial parts of an Angelica ssp. demonstrated antifungal activity against a variety of mucocutaneous fungi. From: Cavaleiro, C., Salgueiro, L., Gonçalves, M. J., Hrimpeng, K., Pinto, J., & Pinto, E. (2015). Antifungal activity of the essential oil of Angelica major against Candida, Cryptococcus, Aspergillus and dermatophyte species. Journal of natural medicines, 69(2), 241-248.

                        ANISE

                        • Anise and boldus essential oils were effective antifungal agents against  Aspergillus section flavi. From:  Bluma, R., Amaiden, M. R., Daghero, J., & Etcheverry, M. (2008). Control of Aspergillus section Flavi growth and aflatoxin accumulation by plant essential oils. Journal of applied microbiology, 105(1), 203-214.
                        • Oregano, coriander, and basil essential oil showed the greatest inhibition to the other bacteria and fungi tested. Anise oil was not particularly inhibitory to bacteria but was highly inhibitory to molds. From:  Elgayyar, M., Draughon, F. A., Golden, D. A., & Mount, J. R. (2001). Antimicrobial activity of essential oils from plants against selected pathogenic and saprophytic microorganisms. Journal of Food Protection®, 64(7), 1019-1024.
                        • P. anisum demonstrated antifungal capability against multiple varieties of fungus.  From:  Shukla, H. S., & Tripathi, S. G. (1987). Antifungal substance in the essential oil of anise (Pimpinella anisum L.). Agricultural and biological chemistry, 51(7), 1991-1993.
                        • Pimpinella anisum essential oil showed strong antifungal activity against yeasts with and dermatophytes and there was a significant differences in antifungal activities between anise fluid extract, which was less effective than anise essential oil.  From:  Kosalec, I., Pepeljnjak, S., & Kustrak, D. A. N. I. C. A. (2005). Antifungal activity of fluid extract and essential oil from anise fruits (Pimpinella anisum L., Apiaceae). ACTA PHARMACEUTICA-ZAGREB-, 55(4), 377.
                        • The extracts of anise seeds inhibited only dermatophyte species, and the extracts of star anise inhibited all dermatophytes and saprophytes, showing antifungal activity.  From:  Yazdani, D., Rezazadeh, S. H., Amin, G. H., Abidin, Z., & Shahnani, S. (2009). Antifungal activity of dried extracts of anise (Pimpinella anisum L.) and star anise (Illicium verum Hook. f.) against dermatophyte and saprophyte fungi. Journal of Medical Plants, 8(5), 24-29.

                        APPLE CIDER VINEGAR

                        • Gopal, J., Anthonydhason, V., Muthu, M., Gansukh, E., Jung, S., Chul, S., & Iyyakkannu, S. (2017). Authenticating apple cider vinegar’s home remedy claims: antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral properties and cytotoxicity aspect. Natural product research, 1-5.

                        BASIL

                        • Essential oils of cinnamon, peppermint, basil, origanum, clove, and thyme caused a total inhibition of fungal development on maize kernels without a phytotoxic effect.  From:  Montes-Belmont, R., & Carvajal, M. (1998). Control of Aspergillus flavus in maize with plant essential oils and their components. Journal of Food Protection®, 61(5), 616-619.
                        • Tested essential oils showed antifungal activity against tested fungi.  From:  Gucwa, K., Milewski, S., Dymerski, T., & Szweda, P. (2018). Investigation of the Antifungal Activity and Mode of Action of Thymus vulgaris, Citrus limonum, Pelargonium graveolens, Cinnamomum cassia, Ocimum basilicum, and Eugenia caryophyllus Essential Oils. Molecules, 23(5), 1116.
                        • Cinnamon, lemon, basil, thyme, geranium, and clove showed high antifungal activity against Candida ssp. in vitro.  From:  Szweda, P., Gucwa, K., Kurzyk, E., Romanowska, E., Dzierżanowska-Fangrat, K., Jurek, A. Z., … & Milewski, S. (2015). Essential oils, silver nanoparticles and propolis as alternative agents against fluconazole resistant Candida albicans, Candida glabrata and Candida krusei clinical isolates. Indian journal of microbiology, 55(2), 175-183.

                        BAY

                        • Chenopodium ambrosioides, Cymbopogon martinii (palmarosa), Cymbopogon nardus (citronella), Syzygium aromaticum (clove), and Pimenta racemosa (bay) were the most antifungal on the eight tested strains.  From:  Delespaul, Q., de Billerbeck, V. G., Roques, C. G., Michel, G., Marquier-Viñuales, C., & Bessière, J. M. (2000). The antifungal activity of essential oils as determined by different screening methods. Journal of essential oil research, 12(2), 256-266.

                        BAYBERRY

                        • Antifungal activity was demonstrated from the leaves of Myrica gale (bayberry) and its sesquiterpene constituents: germacrone and β-elemenone.  From:  Carlton, R. R., Waterman, P. G., Gray, A. I., & Deans, S. G. (1992). The antifungal activity of the leaf gland volatile oil of sweet gale (Myrica gale)(Myricaceae). Chemoecology, 3(1), 55-59.

                        BERGAMOT

                        • Bergamot was antifungal against multiple species of dermatophytes.  From:  Sanguinetti, M., Posteraro, B., Romano, L., Battaglia, F., Lopizzo, T., De Carolis, E., & Fadda, G. (2006). In vitro activity of Citrus bergamia (bergamot) oil against clinical isolates of dermatophytes. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 59(2), 305-308.
                        • Bergamot was antifungal against Penicillium italcium in vitro.  From:  Sánchez-González, L., Cháfer, M., Chiralt, A., & González-Martínez, C. (2010). Physical properties of edible chitosan films containing bergamot essential oil and their inhibitory action on Penicillium italicum. Carbohydrate polymers, 82(2), 277-283.

                        BENZOIN

                        • Of 35 medicinal plants tested, the essential oils from 13 plants showed anti-Candida activity: Aloysia triphylla (lemon verbena), Anthemis nobilis (Roman chamomile), Cymbopogon martini (palmarosa), Cymbopogon winterianus (lemongrass), Cyperus articulatus, Cyperus rotundus, Lippia alba, Mentha arvensis, Mikania glomerata, Mentha piperita, Mentha sp., Stachys byzantina, and Solidago chilensis. From: Duarte, M. C. T., Figueira, G. M., Sartoratto, A., Rehder, V. L. G., & Delarmelina, C. (2005). Anti-Candida activity of Brazilian medicinal plants. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 97(2), 305-311.

                        BLACK PEPPER

                        • Extracts of black pepper and turmeric and their piperine and curcumin constituents demonstrated in vitro antioxidant and antimicrobial activity. From: de Queiroz Cancian, M. A., de Almeida, F. G., Terhaag, M. M., de Oliveira, A. G., de Souza Rocha, T., & Spinosa, W. A. (2018). Curcuma longa L.-and Piper nigrum-based hydrolysate, with high dextrose content, shows antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. LWT, 96, 386-394.
                        • Ethenol extracts from Syzygium aromaticum, Allium sativum, Curcuma longa, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Ocimum sanctum, Piper nigrum, Azadirachta indica, Centella asiatica, and Zingiber officinale showed antimicrobial activity against most tested oral microbes. From: Gauniyal, P., & Teotia, U. V. S. (2014). Phytochemical screening and antimicrobial activity of some medicinal plants against oral flora. Asian Pac J Health Sci, 1(3), 255-63.
                        • Methanol extracts of Piper nigrum, Piper cubeba, and the root of Ligusticum acutilobum showed antimicrobial activity against food spoilage organisms. From: Rukayadi, Y., Lau, K. Y., Zainin, N. S., Zakaria, M., & Abas, F. (2013). Screening antimicrobial activity of tropical edible medicinal plant extracts against five standard microorganisms for natural food preservative. International Food Research Journal, 20(5), 2905.

                        CAJEPUT

                        • Melaleuca leucadendra was antifungal against candida and could be useful in combination with traditional antibiotics.  From:  Zhang, J., Wu, H., Jiang, D., Yang, Y., Tang, W., & Xu, K. (2018). The antifungal activity of essential oil from Melaleuca leucadendra (L.) L. grown in China and its synergistic effects with conventional antibiotics against Candida. Natural product research, 1-4.
                        • The antimicrobial activities of Melaleuca spp is reviewed. From: Sharifi‐Rad, J., Salehi, B., Varoni, E. M., Sharopov, F., Yousaf, Z., Ayatollahi, S. A., … & Iriti, M. (2017). Plants of the Melaleuca genus as antimicrobial agents: From farm to pharmacy. Phytotherapy Research, 31(10), 1475-1494.

                        CALENDULA

                        • Marigold showed antimicrobial activity against various bacteria and fungi.  From:  Efstratiou, E., Hussain, A. I., Nigam, P. S., Moore, J. E., Ayub, M. A., & Rao, J. R. (2012). Antimicrobial activity of Calendula officinalis petal extracts against fungi, as well as Gram-negative and Gram-positive clinical pathogens. Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice, 18(3), 173-176.
                        • Calendula showed antimicrobial activity against multiple pathogenic organisms.  From:  Radioza, S. A., & Iurchak, L. D. (2006). [Antimicrobial activity of Calendula L. plants]. Mikrobiolohichnyi zhurnal (Kiev, Ukraine: 1993), 69(5), 21-25.

                        CAMPHOR

                        • Camphor, menthol, thymol and oil of Eucalyptus citriodora were the most efficacious components against the test toe fungus organisms.  From:  Ramsewak, R. S., Nair, M. G., Stommel, M., & Selanders, L. (2003). In vitro antagonistic activity of monoterpenes and their mixtures against toe nail fungus pathogens. Phytotherapy Research, 17(4), 376-379

                        CARDAMOM

                        • Cardamom essential oil showed significant activities in all antioxidant tests as well as a broad spectrum of antifungal activity and the study determined the essential oil and oleoresin of cardamom to be useful as natural food preservatives.  From:  Kapoor, I. P. S., Singh, B., Singh, G., Isidorov, V., & Szczepaniak, L. (2008). Chemistry, antifungal and antioxidant activities of cardamom (Amomum subulatum) essential oil and oleoresins. International Journal of Essential Oil Therapeutics, 2(1), 29.
                        • Cardamom essential oil exhibited strong antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhi. Antifungal activity was tested against food-borne fungi that included: A. terreus, P. purpurogenum, F. graminearum and P. madriti. From:  Singh, G., Kiran, S., Marimuthu, P., Isidorov, V., & Vinogorova, V. (2008). Antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of essential oil and various oleoresins of Elettaria cardamomum (seeds and pods). Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 88(2), 280-289.
                        • Cardamom essential oil showed significant activities in all antioxidant tests as well as a broad spectrum of antifungal activity and the study determined the essential oil and oleoresin of cardamom to be useful as natural food preservatives.  From:  Kapoor, I. P. S., Singh, B., Singh, G., Isidorov, V., & Szczepaniak, L. (2008). Chemistry, antifungal and antioxidant activities of cardamom (Amomum subulatum) essential oil and oleoresins. International Journal of Essential Oil Therapeutics, 2(1), 29.

                        CARROT SEED

                        • Carrot seed essential oil and its carotl constituent showed antifungal activity against the rice fungi: Bipolaris oryzae and Fusarium moniliforme. From: Sharma, M. (2018). Isolation, derivatization of compounds from carrot seed oil and their antifungal potential (Doctoral dissertation, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana).
                        • Blends with Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Daucus carota, Eucalyptus globulus, Rosmarinus officinalis, Syzygium aromaticum, and Origanum vulgare showed in vitro antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral activities against antibiotic resistant pathogens, candida strains, and both the H1N1 and HSV1 viruses. From: Brochot, A., Guilbot, A., Haddioui, L., & Roques, C. (2017). Antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral effects of three essential oil blends. MicrobiologyOpen, 6(4), e00459.

                        CARROWAY

                        • Complete inhibition of mycelial growth and aflatoxin production by the fungus Aspergillus parasticus were achieved by these oils:  thyme, cumin, clove, caraway, rosemary, and sage. From:  Farag, R. S., Daw, Z. Y., & Abo‐Raya, S. H. (1989). Influence of some spice essential oils on Aspergillus parasiticus growth and production of aflatoxins in a synthetic medium. Journal of Food Science, 54(1), 74-76.

                        CHAMOMILE / ROMAN & GERMAN

                        • Of 35 medicinal plants tested, the essential oils from 13 plants showed anti-Candida activity: Aloysia triphylla (lemon verbena), Anthemis nobilis (Roman chamomile), Cymbopogon martini (palmarosa), Cymbopogon winterianus (lemongrass), Cyperus articulatus, Cyperus rotundus, Lippia alba, Mentha arvensis, Mikania glomerata, Mentha piperita, Mentha sp., Stachys byzantina, and Solidago chilensis. From: Duarte, M. C. T., Figueira, G. M., Sartoratto, A., Rehder, V. L. G., & Delarmelina, C. (2005). Anti-Candida activity of Brazilian medicinal plants. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 97(2), 305-311.
                        • Roman chamomile, curry plant, hyssop, lavandin, marjoram sweet, orange, mint, spearmint, monarda, oregano, rosemary, rue, sage, tansy, tarragon, thyme common and yarrow showed vapour activity against the fungi that causes ringworm. From:  Inouye, S., Uchida, K., & Abe, S. (2006). Volatile composition and vapour activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes of 36 aromatic herbs cultivated in Chichibu district in Japan. International Journal of Aromatherapy, 16(3), 159-168.

                        CINNAMON

                        • Palmarosa and cinnamon oils along with their phenolic compounds of thymol and carvacrol were the most fungitoxic against Cryptococcus neoformans common in late stage AIDS patients. Terpenoids, citral, geraniol, and citronellol also showed strong activity.  From:  Viollon, C., & Chaumont, J. P. (1994). Antifungal properties of essential oils and their main components upon Cryptococcus neoformans. Mycopathologia, 128(3), 151-153.
                        • Oregano, thyme, cinnamon bark, lemongrass, clove, palmarosa, peppermint, lavender, geranium Bourbon, and tea tree reduced fungus in heated footbath water.  From:  Inouye, S., Uchida, K., Nishiyama, Y., Hasumi, Y., Yamaguchi, H., & Abe, S. (2007). Combined effect of heat, essential oils and salt on the fungicidal activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes in foot bath. Nippon Ishinkin Gakkai Zasshi, 48(1), 27-36.
                        • Sixteen essential oils and forty-two pure constituents were tested against Candida albicans. Origanum vulgare, Satureja montana, Mentha piperita, Cinnamomum verum, and Cymbopogon flexuosus along with the  pure constituents (by family) of , β-phellandrene, carvacrol, 1-decanol, and trans-cynnamaldehyde.  From:  Tampieri, M. P., Galuppi, R., Macchioni, F., Carelle, M. S., Falcioni, L., Cioni, P. L., & Morelli, I. (2005). The inhibition of Candida albicans by selected essential oils and their major components. Mycopathologia, 159(3), 339-345.
                        • Among 49 essential oils tested, palmarosa (Cymbopogon martini), red thyme (Thymus zygis), cinnamon leaf (Cinnamomum zeylanicum), and clove buds (Eugenia caryophyllata) were the most antifungal activity against Botrytis cinerea.  From:  Wilson, C. L., Solar, J. M., El Ghaouth, A., & Wisniewski, M. E. (1997). Rapid evaluation of plant extracts and essential oils for antifungal activity against Botrytis cinerea. Plant disease, 81(2), 204-210.
                        • Cinnamon and its cinnamaldehyde constituent have antifungal properties.  From:  Wang, S. Y., Chen, P. F., & Chang, S. T. (2005). Antifungal activities of essential oils and their constituents from indigenous cinnamon (Cinnamomum osmophloeum) leaves against wood decay fungi. Bioresource technology, 96(7), 813-818.
                        • Essential oils of cinnamon, peppermint, basil, origanum, clove, and thyme caused a total inhibition of fungal development on maize kernels without a phytotoxic effect.  From:  Montes-Belmont, R., & Carvajal, M. (1998). Control of Aspergillus flavus in maize with plant essential oils and their components. Journal of Food Protection®, 61(5), 616-619.
                        • Cinnamon essential oil reduced oral candida in vitro. From: Rangel, M. D. L., Aquino, S. G. D., Lima, J. M. D., Castellano, L. R., & Castro, R. D. D. (2018). In vitro effect of Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume essential oil on Candida spp. involved in oral infections. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2018.
                        • Cinnamon, Mexican oregano, oregano, thyme, and ginger essential oils showed antifungal activity.  From:  Pozzatti, P., Scheid, L. A., Spader, T. B., Atayde, M. L., Santurio, J. M., & Alves, S. H. (2008). In vitro activity of essential oils extracted from plants used as spices against fluconazole-resistant and fluconazole-susceptible Candida spp. Canadian journal of microbiology, 54(11), 950-956.
                        • Cinnamon, thyme, oregano, and cumin stopped mycelial growth at the lowest concentration. From:  Tantaoui-Elaraki, A., & Beraoud, L. (1993). Inhibition of growth and aflatoxin production in Aspergillus parasiticus by essential oils of selected plant materials. Journal of environmental pathology, toxicology and oncology: official organ of the International Society for Environmental Toxicology and Cancer, 13(1), 67-72.
                        • Tested essential oils showed antifungal activity against tested fungi.  From:  Gucwa, K., Milewski, S., Dymerski, T., & Szweda, P. (2018). Investigation of the Antifungal Activity and Mode of Action of Thymus vulgaris, Citrus limonum, Pelargonium graveolens, Cinnamomum cassia, Ocimum basilicum, and Eugenia caryophyllus Essential Oils. Molecules, 23(5), 1116.
                        • Cinnamon, lemon, basil, thyme, geranium, and clove showed high antifungal activity against Candida ssp. in vitro.  From:  Szweda, P., Gucwa, K., Kurzyk, E., Romanowska, E., Dzierżanowska-Fangrat, K., Jurek, A. Z., … & Milewski, S. (2015). Essential oils, silver nanoparticles and propolis as alternative agents against fluconazole resistant Candida albicans, Candida glabrata and Candida krusei clinical isolates. Indian journal of microbiology, 55(2), 175-183.
                        • Blends with Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Daucus carota, Eucalyptus globulus, Rosmarinus officinalis, Syzygium aromaticum, and Origanum vulgare showed in vitro antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral activities against antibiotic resistant pathogens, candida strains, and both the H1N1 and HSV1 viruses. From: Brochot, A., Guilbot, A., Haddioui, L., & Roques, C. (2017). Antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral effects of three essential oil blends. MicrobiologyOpen, 6(4), e00459.

                        CISTUS

                        • Extracts from Cistus ladanifer and its isolated phenolic constituents demonstrated antifunal activity against Candida species. From: Barros, L., Dueñas, M., Alves, C. T., Silva, S., Henriques, M., Santos-Buelga, C., & Ferreira, I. C. (2012). Cistus ladanifer as a source of phenolic compounds with antifungal activity. In Planta Medica; 8th Joint Meeting of AFERP, ASP, GA, PSE & SIF, 28th July-1st August 2012 (Vol. 78, p. 1126).

                        CITRONELLA

                        • Cymbopogan nardus showed in vitro and in vivo anti-fungal and anti-inflammatory action against candidiasis on chronic diabetic wounds.  From:  Kandimalla, R., Kalita, S., Choudhury, B., Dash, S., Kalita, K., & Kotoky, J. (2016). Chemical composition and anti-candidiasis mediated wound healing property of Cymbopogon nardus essential oil on chronic diabetic wounds. Frontiers in pharmacology, 7, 198.
                        • Chenopodium ambrosioides, Cymbopogon martinii (palmarosa), Cymbopogon nardus (citronella), Syzygium aromaticum (clove), and Pimenta racemosa (bay) were the most antifungal on the eight tested strains.  From:  Delespaul, Q., de Billerbeck, V. G., Roques, C. G., Michel, G., Marquier-Viñuales, C., & Bessière, J. M. (2000). The antifungal activity of essential oils as determined by different screening methods. Journal of essential oil research, 12(2), 256-266.
                        • Citronellal and linalool found in citronella completely inhibited the growth of all tested fungal strains. From:  Nakahara, K., Alzoreky, N. S., Yoshihashi, T., Nguyen, H. T., & Trakoontivakorn, G. (2013). Chemical composition and antifungal activity of essential oil from Cymbopogon nardus (citronella grass). Japan Agricultural Research Quarterly: JARQ, 37(4), 249-252.
                        • Cymbopogon nardus showed activity against candida species in vitro.  From:  De Toledo, L. G., Ramos, M. A. D. S., Spósito, L., Castilho, E. M., Pavan, F. R., Lopes, É. D. O., … & Bauab, T. M. (2016). Essential oil of Cymbopogon nardus (L.) Rendle: a strategy to combat fungal infections caused by Candida species. International journal of molecular sciences, 17(8), 1252.
                        • C. citriodora, C. nardus, and possibly the cintronellal constituent reduced spore production, germination, and growth of P. grisea, Aspergillus species, and Colletotrichum musae.  From:  Aguiar, R. W. D. S., Ootani, M. A., Ascencio, S. D., Ferreira, T. P., Santos, M. M. D., & Santos, G. R. D. (2014). Fumigant antifungal activity of Corymbia citriodora and Cymbopogon nardus essential oils and citronellal against three fungal species. The Scientific World Journal, 2014.
                        • The essential oil from Cymbopogan nardus and its citronellal constituent reduced C. albican adherence to dental implants and screws.  From:  Trindade, L. A., de Araújo Oliveira, J., de Castro, R. D., & de Oliveira Lima, E. (2015). Inhibition of adherence of C. albicans to dental implants and cover screws by Cymbopogon nardus essential oil and citronellal. Clinical oral investigations, 19(9), 2223-2231.

                        CLARY SAGE

                        • Clary sage essential oil demonstrating antifungal action against food poisoning, food spoilage, and plant and animal pathogens. From:  Džamić, A., Soković, M., Ristić, M., Grujić-Jovanović, S., Vukojević, J., & Marin, P. D. (2008). Chemical composition and antifungal activity of Salvia sclarea (Lamiaceae) essential oil. Arch. Biol. Sci, 60(2), 233-237.
                        • Linalyl acetate and linalool of Salvia sclarea was antifungal in vitro against three soil-borne pathogens.  From:  Pitarokili, D., Couladis, M., Petsikos-Panayotarou, N., & Tzakou, O. (2002). Composition and antifungal activity on soil-borne pathogens of the essential oil of Salvia sclarea from Greece. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 50(23), 6688-6691.

                        CLOVE

                        • Oregano, thyme, cinnamon bark, lemongrass, clove, palmarosa, peppermint, lavender, geranium Bourbon, and tea tree reduced fungus in heated footbath water.  From:  Inouye, S., Uchida, K., Nishiyama, Y., Hasumi, Y., Yamaguchi, H., & Abe, S. (2007). Combined effect of heat, essential oils and salt on the fungicidal activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes in foot bath. Nippon Ishinkin Gakkai Zasshi, 48(1), 27-36.
                        • Among 49 essential oils tested, palmarosa (Cymbopogon martini), red thyme (Thymus zygis), cinnamon leaf (Cinnamomum zeylanicum), and clove buds (Eugenia caryophyllata) were the most antifungal activity against Botrytis cinerea.  From:  Wilson, C. L., Solar, J. M., El Ghaouth, A., & Wisniewski, M. E. (1997). Rapid evaluation of plant extracts and essential oils for antifungal activity against Botrytis cinerea. Plant disease, 81(2), 204-210.
                        • Chenopodium ambrosioides, Cymbopogon martinii (palmarosa), Cymbopogon nardus (citronella), Syzygium aromaticum (clove), and Pimenta racemosa (bay) were the most antifungal on the eight tested strains.  From:  Delespaul, Q., de Billerbeck, V. G., Roques, C. G., Michel, G., Marquier-Viñuales, C., & Bessière, J. M. (2000). The antifungal activity of essential oils as determined by different screening methods. Journal of essential oil research, 12(2), 256-266.
                        • Thirty plant oils were tested and eucalyptus, peppermint, ginger grass and clove showed strong antifungal activity against Candida albicans.  From:  Agarwal, V., Lal, P., & Pruthi, V. (2008). Prevention of Candida albicans biofilm by plant oils. Mycopathologia, 165(1), 13-19.
                        • The high fungistatic effects of clove and peppermint oils may be useful for treating skin fungi.  From:  El-Naghy, M. A., Maghazy, S. N., Fadl-Allah, E. M., & El-Gendy, Z. K. (1992). Fungistatic action of natural oils and fatty acids on dermatophytic and saprophytic fungi. Zentralblatt für Mikrobiologie, 147(3), 214-220.
                        • Clove oil and eugenol have considerable antifungal activity.  From:  Pinto, E., Vale-Silva, L., Cavaleiro, C., & Salgueiro, L. (2009). Antifungal activity of the clove essential oil from Syzygium aromaticum on Candida, Aspergillus and dermatophyte species. Journal of medical microbiology, 58(11), 1454-1462.
                        • Clove and oregano oils were antifungal against the yeast: Saccharomyces cerevisiae.  From:  Chami, F., Chami, N., Bennis, S., Bouchikhi, T., & Remmal, A. (2005). Oregano and clove essential oils induce surface alteration of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Phytotherapy Research, 19(5), 405-408
                        • Essential oils of cinnamon, peppermint, basil, origanum, clove, and thyme caused a total inhibition of fungal development on maize kernels without a phytotoxic effect.  From:  Montes-Belmont, R., & Carvajal, M. (1998). Control of Aspergillus flavus in maize with plant essential oils and their components. Journal of Food Protection®, 61(5), 616-619.
                        • Complete inhibition of mycelial growth and aflatoxin production by the fungus Aspergillus parasticus were achieved by these oils:  thyme, cumin, clove, caraway, rosemary, and sage. From:  Farag, R. S., Daw, Z. Y., & Abo‐Raya, S. H. (1989). Influence of some spice essential oils on Aspergillus parasiticus growth and production of aflatoxins in a synthetic medium. Journal of Food Science, 54(1), 74-76.
                        • Tested essential oils showed antifungal activity against tested fungi.  From:  Gucwa, K., Milewski, S., Dymerski, T., & Szweda, P. (2018). Investigation of the Antifungal Activity and Mode of Action of Thymus vulgaris, Citrus limonum, Pelargonium graveolens, Cinnamomum cassia, Ocimum basilicum, and Eugenia caryophyllus Essential Oils. Molecules, 23(5), 1116.
                        • Cinnamon, lemon, basil, thyme, geranium, and clove showed high antifungal activity against Candida ssp. in vitro.  From:  Szweda, P., Gucwa, K., Kurzyk, E., Romanowska, E., Dzierżanowska-Fangrat, K., Jurek, A. Z., … & Milewski, S. (2015). Essential oils, silver nanoparticles and propolis as alternative agents against fluconazole resistant Candida albicans, Candida glabrata and Candida krusei clinical isolates. Indian journal of microbiology, 55(2), 175-183.
                        • Pseudolarix kaempferi, Sophora flavescens, Pogostemon cablin, Alpinia officinarum, Eugenia caryophyllata, Melia toosendan, and Polygonum hydropiper showed the strongest antifungal activity of tested Chinese plants.  From:  Liu, Q., Luyten, W., Pellens, K., Wang, Y., Wang, W., Thevissen, K., … & Luo, G. (2012). Antifungal activity in plants from Chinese traditional and folk medicine. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 143(3), 772-778.
                        • Blends with Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Daucus carota, Eucalyptus globulus, Rosmarinus officinalis, Syzygium aromaticum, and Origanum vulgare showed in vitro antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral activities against antibiotic resistant pathogens, candida strains, and both the H1N1 and HSV1 viruses. From: Brochot, A., Guilbot, A., Haddioui, L., & Roques, C. (2017). Antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral effects of three essential oil blends. MicrobiologyOpen, 6(4), e00459.

                        CORIANDER

                        • C. sativum essential oil was antifungal against oral candida in vitro. From: Furletti, V. F., Teixeira, I. P., Obando-Pereda, G., Mardegan, R. C., Sartoratto, A., Figueira, G. M., … & Höfling, J. F. (2011). Action of Coriandrum sativum L. essential oil upon oral Candida albicans biofilm formation. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2011.
                        • In a placebo controlled study of 40 patients with tinea pedis, a 6% coriander oil solution applied twice daily for 14 days significantly reduced the infection and was well tolerated. From: Beikert, F. C., Anastasiadou, Z., Fritzen, B., Frank, U., & Augustin, M. (2013). Topical treatment of tinea pedis using 6% coriander oil in unguentum leniens: a randomized, controlled, comparative pilot study. Dermatology, 226(1), 47-51.

                        CUMIN

                        • Complete inhibition of mycelial growth and aflatoxin production by the fungus Aspergillus parasticus were achieved by these oils:  thyme, cumin, clove, caraway, rosemary, and sage. From:  Farag, R. S., Daw, Z. Y., & Abo‐Raya, S. H. (1989). Influence of some spice essential oils on Aspergillus parasiticus growth and production of aflatoxins in a synthetic medium. Journal of Food Science, 54(1), 74-76.
                        • Cinnamon, thyme, oregano, and cumin stopped mycelial growth at the lowest concentration. From:  Tantaoui-Elaraki, A., & Beraoud, L. (1993). Inhibition of growth and aflatoxin production in Aspergillus parasiticus by essential oils of selected plant materials. Journal of environmental pathology, toxicology and oncology: official organ of the International Society for Environmental Toxicology and Cancer, 13(1), 67-72.

                        CURRY PLANT

                        • Roman chamomile, curry plant, hyssop, lavandin, marjoram sweet, orange, mint, spearmint, monarda, oregano, rosemary, rue, sage, tansy, tarragon, thyme common and yarrow showed vapour activity against the fungi that causes ringworm. From:  Inouye, S., Uchida, K., & Abe, S. (2006). Volatile composition and vapour activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes of 36 aromatic herbs cultivated in Chichibu district in Japan. International Journal of Aromatherapy, 16(3), 159-168.

                        CYPRESS

                        • Of 35 medicinal plants tested, the essential oils from 13 plants showed anti-Candida activity: Aloysia triphylla (lemon verbena), Anthemis nobilis (Roman chamomile), Cymbopogon martini (palmarosa), Cymbopogon winterianus (lemongrass), Cyperus articulatus, Cyperus rotundus, Lippia alba, Mentha arvensis, Mikania glomerata, Mentha piperita, Mentha sp., Stachys byzantina, and Solidago chilensis. From: Duarte, M. C. T., Figueira, G. M., Sartoratto, A., Rehder, V. L. G., & Delarmelina, C. (2005). Anti-Candida activity of Brazilian medicinal plants. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 97(2), 305-311.
                        • Two terpenoids in cypress showed antifungal activity.  From:  Madar, Z., Gottlieb, H. E., Cojocaru, M., Riov, J., Solel, Z., & Sztejnberg, A. (1995). Antifungal terpenoids produced by cypress after infection by Diplodia pinea f. sp. cupressi. Phytochemistry, 38(2), 351-354.

                        DILL

                        • At high doses and undiluted, coriander, fennel, peppermint, dill, fir, juniper, rosemary, and lavender were active against E. coli, S. aureus, and Candida albicans.  From:   Şerban, E. S., Ionescu, M. I. H. A. E. L. A., Matinca, D. O. I. N. A., Maier, C. S., & Bojiţă, M. T. (2011). Screening of the antibacterial and antifungal activity of eight volatile essential oils. Farmacia, 59(3), 440-446.
                        • Fennel and dill showed anticandidal and antimycobacterial properties.  From:  Abed, K. F. (2007). Antimicrobial activity of essential oils of some medicinal plants from Saudi Arabia. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences, 14(1), 53-60.
                        • Carvone and limonene isolated from spearmint and dill were active against a wide spectrum of human pathogenic fungi and bacteria tested.  From:  Aggarwal, K. K., Khanuja, S. P. S., Ahmad, A., Santha Kumar, T. R., Gupta, V. K., & Kumar, S. (2002). Antimicrobial activity profiles of the two enantiomers of limonene and carvone isolated from the oils of Mentha spicata and Anethum sowa. Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 17(1), 59-63.
                        • The following essential oils were tested and showed varying degrees of antimicrobial, antifungal, antibacterial, and antiviral activities: Anethum graveolens, Foeniculum vulgare, Mentha piperita, Mentha spicata, Lavandula officinalis, Ocimum basilicum, Origanum onites, O. vulgare, O. munitiflorum, O. majorana, Rosmarinus officinalis, Salvia officinalis, and Satureja cuneifolia. From: Orhan, İlkay Erdoğan, et al. “Antimicrobial and antiviral effects of essential oils from selected Umbelliferae and Labiatae plants and individual essential oil components.” Turkish Journal of Biology 36.3 (2012): 239-246.

                        EUCALYPTUS

                        • A mouth rinse containing thymol with eucalyptol and benzoic acid (Listerine) showed oral antifungal activity, especially against Candida albicans.  From:  Abirami, C. P., & Venugopal, P. V. (2005). Antifungal activity of three mouth rinses–in vitro study. Indian journal of pathology & microbiology, 48(1), 43-44.
                        • Thirty plant oils were tested and eucalyptus, peppermint, ginger grass and clove showed strong antifungal activity against Candida albicans.  From:  Agarwal, V., Lal, P., & Pruthi, V. (2008). Prevention of Candida albicans biofilm by plant oils. Mycopathologia, 165(1), 13-19.
                        • Camphor, menthol, thymol and oil of Eucalyptus citriodora were the most efficacious components against the test toe fungus organisms.  From:  Ramsewak, R. S., Nair, M. G., Stommel, M., & Selanders, L. (2003). In vitro antagonistic activity of monoterpenes and their mixtures against toe nail fungus pathogens. Phytotherapy Research, 17(4), 376-379.
                        • Blends with Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Daucus carota, Eucalyptus globulus, Rosmarinus officinalis, Syzygium aromaticum, and Origanum vulgare showed in vitro antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral activities against antibiotic resistant pathogens, candida strains, and both the H1N1 and HSV1 viruses. From: Brochot, A., Guilbot, A., Haddioui, L., & Roques, C. (2017). Antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral effects of three essential oil blends. MicrobiologyOpen, 6(4), e00459.

                        FENNEL

                        • Fennel provided dose dependent antifungal activity.  From:  Özcan, M. M., Chalchat, J. C., Arslan, D., Ates, A., & Ünver, A. (2006). Comparative essential oil composition and antifungal effect of bitter fennel (Foeniculum vulgare ssp. piperitum) fruit oils obtained during different vegetation. Journal of medicinal food, 9(4), 552-561.

                        FRAGONIA

                        • In this study, 82 essential oils were tested and showed varying antifungal activities against Aspergillus niger, Candida albicans, and Cryptococcus neoformans. From: Powers, C. N., Satyal, P., Mayo, J. A., McFeeters, H., & McFeeters, R. L. (2019). Bigger Data Approach to Analysis of Essential Oils and Their Antifungal Activity against Aspergillus niger, Candida albicans, and Cryptococcus neoformans. Molecules, 24(16), 2868.
                        • Cineole, citral, geraniol, linalool and menthol were tested against a variety of bacteria and fungi, showing a range of antimicrobial activity.  From:  Pattnaik, S., Subramanyam, V. R., Bapaji, M., & Kole, C. R. (1996). Antibacterial and antifungal activity of aromatic constituents of essential oils. Microbios, 89(358), 39-46.

                        GARLIC

                        • Garlic and its allicin constituent show antimicrobial, antibacterial, antifungal, antiparasitic activity.  From:  Ankri, S., & Mirelman, D. (1999). Antimicrobial properties of allicin from garlic. Microbes and infection, 1(2), 125-129.
                        • Diallyl disulfide, as a constituent in garlic, showed antifungal activity.  From:  Avato, P., Tursi, F., Vitali, C., Miccolis, V., & Candido, V. (2000). Allylsulfide constituents of garlic volatile oil as antimicrobial agents. Phytomedicine, 7(3), 239-243.
                        • Garlic and onion extracts showed antimicrobial activity and maybe effective in stored foods.  From:  Benkeblia, N. (2004). Antimicrobial activity of essential oil extracts of various onions (Allium cepa) and garlic (Allium sativum). LWT-Food Science and Technology, 37(2), 263-268.
                        • Allicin extracted from garlic demonstrated antibacterial, antimicrobial activities.  From:  Feldberg, R. S., Chang, S. C., Kotik, A. N., Nadler, M., Neuwirth, Z., Sundstrom, D. C., & Thompson, N. H. (1988). In vitro mechanism of inhibition of bacterial cell growth by allicin. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 32(12), 1763-1768.
                        • Allicin showed activity against multiple food bacteria and fungi, and oomycetes.  From:  Curtis, H., Noll, U., Störmann, J., & Slusarenko, A. J. (2004). Broad-spectrum activity of the volatile phytoanticipin allicin in extracts of garlic (Allium sativum L.) against plant pathogenic bacteria, fungi and Oomycetes. Physiological and Molecular Plant Pathology, 65(2), 79-89.
                        • Constituents from garlic: diallyl thiosulphinate (allicin), methyl allyl thiosulphinate, and allyl methyl thiosulphinate showed antibacterial and antifungal activities.  From:  Hughes, B. G., & Lawson, L. D. (1991). Antimicrobial effects of Allium sativum L.(garlic), Allium ampeloprasum L.(elephant garlic), and Allium cepa L.(onion), garlic compounds and commercial garlic supplement products. Phytotherapy Research, 5(4), 154-158.
                        • Ajoene, a constituent of garlic, showed strong antimicrobial activity against multiple organisms tested.  From:  Naganawa, R., Iwata, N., Ishikawa, K., Fukuda, H., Fujino, T., & Suzuki, A. (1996). Inhibition of microbial growth by ajoene, a sulfur-containing compound derived from garlic. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 62(11), 4238-4242.

                        GERANIUM

                        • Oregano, thyme, cinnamon bark, lemongrass, clove, palmarosa, peppermint, lavender, geranium Bourbon, and tea tree reduced fungus in heated footbath water.  From:  Inouye, S., Uchida, K., Nishiyama, Y., Hasumi, Y., Yamaguchi, H., & Abe, S. (2007). Combined effect of heat, essential oils and salt on the fungicidal activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes in foot bath. Nippon Ishinkin Gakkai Zasshi, 48(1), 27-36.
                        • The in vitro study demonstrated antibiofilm activity of carvacrol, geraniol, and thymol against Candida.  From:  Dalleau, S., Cateau, E., Bergès, T., Berjeaud, J. M., & Imbert, C. (2008). In vitro activity of terpenes against Candida biofilms. International journal of antimicrobial agents, 31(6), 572-576.
                        • Root extracts from two Pelargonium species were antibacterial and antifungal against tested pathogenic microbes.  From:  Mativandlela, S. P. N., Lall, N., & Meyer, J. J. M. (2006). Antibacterial, antifungal and antitubercular activity of (the roots of) Pelargonium reniforme (CURT) and Pelargonium sidoides (DC)(Geraniaceae) root extracts. South African Journal of Botany, 72(2), 232-237.
                        • Tested essential oils showed antifungal activity against tested fungi.  From:  Gucwa, K., Milewski, S., Dymerski, T., & Szweda, P. (2018). Investigation of the Antifungal Activity and Mode of Action of Thymus vulgaris, Citrus limonum, Pelargonium graveolens, Cinnamomum cassia, Ocimum basilicum, and Eugenia caryophyllus Essential Oils. Molecules, 23(5), 1116.
                        • Cinnamon, lemon, basil, thyme, geranium, and clove showed high antifungal activity against Candida ssp. in vitro.  From:  Szweda, P., Gucwa, K., Kurzyk, E., Romanowska, E., Dzierżanowska-Fangrat, K., Jurek, A. Z., … & Milewski, S. (2015). Essential oils, silver nanoparticles and propolis as alternative agents against fluconazole resistant Candida albicans, Candida glabrata and Candida krusei clinical isolates. Indian journal of microbiology, 55(2), 175-183.

                        GINGER

                        • Thirty plant oils were tested and eucalyptus, peppermint, ginger grass and clove showed strong antifungal activity against Candida albicans.  From:  Agarwal, V., Lal, P., & Pruthi, V. (2008). Prevention of Candida albicans biofilm by plant oils. Mycopathologia, 165(1), 13-19.
                        • The following plants showed antifungal activity against the nine species tested in vitro:  Alnus rubra catkins (red alder tree), Artemisia ludoviciana (mugwort) aerial parts, Artemisia tridentata aerial parts, Geum macrophyllum roots, Mahonia aquifolium roots (oregon grape), Moneses uniflora aerial parts, Asarum caudatum whole plant (wild ginger), Balsamorhiza sagittata roots (arrowleaf balsamroot), Empetrum nigrum branches (crowberry), Fragaria chiloensis leaves (strawberry), Gilia aggregata aerial parts and roots, Glehnia littoralis roots, Heracleum lanatum roots (Indian celery), Heuchera cylindrica roots and Rhus glabra branches (sumac). From:  McCutcheon, A. R., Ellis, S. M., Hancock, R. E. W., & Towers, G. H. N. (1994). Antifungal screening of medicinal plants of British Columbian native peoples. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 44(3), 157-169.
                        • Cinnamon, Mexican oregano, oregano, thyme, and ginger essential oils showed antifungal activity.  From:  Pozzatti, P., Scheid, L. A., Spader, T. B., Atayde, M. L., Santurio, J. M., & Alves, S. H. (2008). In vitro activity of essential oils extracted from plants used as spices against fluconazole-resistant and fluconazole-susceptible Candida spp. Canadian journal of microbiology, 54(11), 950-956.
                        • Pseudolarix kaempferi, Sophora flavescens, Pogostemon cablin, Alpinia officinarum, Eugenia caryophyllata, Melia toosendan, and Polygonum hydropiper showed the strongest antifungal activity of tested Chinese plants.  From:  Liu, Q., Luyten, W., Pellens, K., Wang, Y., Wang, W., Thevissen, K., … & Luo, G. (2012). Antifungal activity in plants from Chinese traditional and folk medicine. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 143(3), 772-778.

                        GRAPEFRUIT

                        • Lemon, mandarin, grapefruit, and orange oils were antifungal against food spoilage molds.  From:  Viuda-Martos, M., Ruiz-Navajas, Y., Fernández-López, J., & Pérez-Álvarez, J. (2008). Antifungal activity of lemon (Citrus lemon L.), mandarin (Citrus reticulata L.), grapefruit (Citrus paradisi L.) and orange (Citrus sinensis L.) essential oils. Food control, 19(12), 1130-1138.
                        • Limonene and thymol were strongest against Fusarium verticillioides in vitro.  From:  Dambolena, J. S., López, A. G., Cánepa, M. C., Theumer, M. G., Zygadlo, J. A., & Rubinstein, H. R. (2008). Inhibitory effect of cyclic terpenes (limonene, menthol, menthone and thymol) on Fusarium verticillioides MRC 826 growth and fumonisin B1 biosynthesis. Toxicon, 51(1), 37-44.
                        • Various extracts of grapefruit peel were antimicrobial, antibacterial, and antifungal against tested pathogenic disease organisms. From: Okunowo, W. O., Oyedeji, O., Afolabi, L. O., & Matanmi, E. (2013). Essential oil of grape fruit (Citrus paradisi) peels and its antimicrobial activities. American Journal of Plant Sciences, 4(07), 1.

                        HELICHRYSUM

                        • Essential oil from H. italicum demonstrated antibacterial, antifungal, and antimicrobial against multiople tested pathogens in vitro. From: Oliva, A., Garzoli, S., Sabatino, M., Tadić, V., Costantini, S., Ragno, R., & Božović, M. (2018). Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of essential oil of Helichrysum italicum (Roth) G. Don fil.(Asteraceae) from Montenegro. Natural product research, 1-4.

                        HYSSOP

                        • Roman chamomile, curry plant, hyssop, lavandin, marjoram sweet, orange, mint, spearmint, monarda, oregano, rosemary, rue, sage, tansy, tarragon, thyme common and yarrow showed vapour activity against the fungi that causes ringworm. From:  Inouye, S., Uchida, K., & Abe, S. (2006). Volatile composition and vapour activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes of 36 aromatic herbs cultivated in Chichibu district in Japan. International Journal of Aromatherapy, 16(3), 159-168.
                        • Hyssop was antifungal against multiple candida species in vitro.  From:  Hristova, Y., Wanner, J., Jirovetz, L., Stappen, I., Iliev, I., & Gochev, V. (2015). Chemical composition and antifungal activity of essential oil of Hyssopus officinalis L. from Bulgaria against clinical isolates of Candida species. Biotechnology & Biotechnological Equipment, 29(3), 592-601.

                        JASMINE

                        • Jasminum sambac showed in vitro action against the fungus: Malassezia, and may be helpful against associated skin infections. From:  Santhanam, J., Ghani, A., Nadiah, F., & Basri, D. F. (2014). Antifungal activity of Jasminum sambac against Malassezia sp. and non-Malassezia sp. isolated from human skin samples. Journal of Mycology, 2014.
                        • Jasminum sambac showed antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antibacterial activity in vitro.  From:  Abdoul-Latif, F., Edou, P., Eba, F., Mohamed, N., Ali, A., Djama, S., … & Dicko, M. (2010). Antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of essential oil and methanol extract of Jasminum sambac from Djibouti. African Journal of Plant Science, 4(3), 38-43.

                        JUNIPER

                        • Juniper essential oil showed potent food preservative against food spoilage fungi. From: Nikolić, B., Vasilijević, B., Ćirić, A., Mitić-Ćulafić, D., Cvetković, S., Džamić, A., & Knežević-Vukčević, J. (2019). Bioactivity of Juniperus communis essential oil and post-distillation waste: assessment of selective toxicity against food contaminants. ARCHIVES OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES, 71(2), 235-244.
                        • Antioxidant, anti-fungal, genoprotective, and anti-inflammatory activities of juniper extracts were demonstrated in vitro. From: Fierascu, I., Ungureanu, C., Avramescu, S. M., Cimpeanu, C., Georgescu, M. I., Fierascu, R. C., … & Dinu-Pirvu, C. E. (2018). Genoprotective, antioxidant, antifungal and anti-inflammatory evaluation of hydroalcoholic extract of wild-growing Juniperus communis L.(Cupressaceae) native to Romanian southern sub-Carpathian hills. BMC complementary and alternative medicine, 18(1), 3.

                        KANUKA

                        • Manuka and kanuka essential oils showed antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory activity in vitro, and may be effective against human infectious microorganisms.  From:  Chen, C. C., Yan, S. H., Yen, M. Y., Wu, P. F., Liao, W. T., Huang, T. S., … & Wang, H. M. D. (2016). Investigations of kanuka and manuka essential oils for in vitro treatment of disease and cellular inflammation caused by infectious microorganisms. Journal of Microbiology, Immunology and Infection, 49(1), 104-111.

                        KUNZEA

                        • Kunzea essential oil showed in vitro antimicrobial activity, some mosquito repelling activity in humans, and may be useful in treating skin fungal and bacterial infections based on a study on horses. From: Thomas, J. (2012). Kunzea oil: investigation of composition, bioactivity and therapeitic potential (Doctoral dissertation, University of Tasmania).

                        LAVENDER

                        • Oregano, thyme, cinnamon bark, lemongrass, clove, palmarosa, peppermint, lavender, geranium Bourbon, and tea tree reduced fungus in heated footbath water.  From:  Inouye, S., Uchida, K., Nishiyama, Y., Hasumi, Y., Yamaguchi, H., & Abe, S. (2007). Combined effect of heat, essential oils and salt on the fungicidal activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes in foot bath. Nippon Ishinkin Gakkai Zasshi, 48(1), 27-36.
                        • Oregano, spearmint, lavender, and sage essential oils and the constituents of carvacrol and thymol exhibited antifungal properties against the human pathogens Malassezia furfur, Trichophyton rubrum, and Trichosporon beigelii. From:  Adam, K., Sivropoulou, A., Kokkini, S., Lanaras, T., & Arsenakis, M. (1998). Antifungal activities of Origanum vulgare subsp. hirtum, Mentha spicata, Lavandula angustifolia, and Salvia fruticosa essential oils against human pathogenic fungi. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 46(5), 1739-1745.

                        LAVANDIN

                        • Roman chamomile, curry plant, hyssop, lavandin, marjoram sweet, orange, mint, spearmint, monarda, oregano, rosemary, rue, sage, tansy, tarragon, thyme common and yarrow showed vapour activity against the fungi that causes ringworm. From:  Inouye, S., Uchida, K., & Abe, S. (2006). Volatile composition and vapour activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes of 36 aromatic herbs cultivated in Chichibu district in Japan. International Journal of Aromatherapy, 16(3), 159-168.

                        LEMON

                        • Lemon, mandarin, grapefruit, and orange oils were antifungal against food spoilage molds.  From:  Viuda-Martos, M., Ruiz-Navajas, Y., Fernández-López, J., & Pérez-Álvarez, J. (2008). Antifungal activity of lemon (Citrus lemon L.), mandarin (Citrus reticulata L.), grapefruit (Citrus paradisi L.) and orange (Citrus sinensis L.) essential oils. Food control, 19(12), 1130-1138.
                        • Tested essential oils showed antifungal activity against tested fungi.  From:  Gucwa, K., Milewski, S., Dymerski, T., & Szweda, P. (2018). Investigation of the Antifungal Activity and Mode of Action of Thymus vulgaris, Citrus limonum, Pelargonium graveolens, Cinnamomum cassia, Ocimum basilicum, and Eugenia caryophyllus Essential Oils. Molecules, 23(5), 1116.
                        • Cinnamon, lemon, basil, thyme, geranium, and clove showed high antifungal activity against Candida ssp. in vitro.  From:  Szweda, P., Gucwa, K., Kurzyk, E., Romanowska, E., Dzierżanowska-Fangrat, K., Jurek, A. Z., … & Milewski, S. (2015). Essential oils, silver nanoparticles and propolis as alternative agents against fluconazole resistant Candida albicans, Candida glabrata and Candida krusei clinical isolates. Indian journal of microbiology, 55(2), 175-183.

                        LEMON VERBENA

                        • Of 35 medicinal plants tested, the essential oils from 13 plants showed anti-Candida activity: Aloysia triphylla (lemon verbena), Anthemis nobilis (Roman chamomile), Cymbopogon martini (palmarosa), Cymbopogon winterianus (lemongrass), Cyperus articulatus, Cyperus rotundus, Lippia alba, Mentha arvensis, Mikania glomerata, Mentha piperita, Mentha sp., Stachys byzantina, and Solidago chilensis. From: Duarte, M. C. T., Figueira, G. M., Sartoratto, A., Rehder, V. L. G., & Delarmelina, C. (2005). Anti-Candida activity of Brazilian medicinal plants. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 97(2), 305-311.

                        LEMONGRASS

                        • Oregano, thyme, cinnamon bark, lemongrass, clove, palmarose, peppermint, lavender, geranium Bourbon, and tea tree reduced fungus in heated footbath water.  From:  Inouye, S., Uchida, K., Nishiyama, Y., Hasumi, Y., Yamaguchi, H., & Abe, S. (2007). Combined effect of heat, essential oils and salt on the fungicidal activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes in foot bath. Nippon Ishinkin Gakkai Zasshi, 48(1), 27-36.
                        • Sixteen essential oils and forty-two pure constituents were tested against Candida albicans. Origanum vulgare, Satureja montana, Mentha piperita, Cinnamomum verum, and Cymbopogon flexuosus along with the  pure constituents (by family) of , β-phellandrene, carvacrol, 1-decanol, and trans-cynnamaldehyde.  From:  Tampieri, M. P., Galuppi, R., Macchioni, F., Carelle, M. S., Falcioni, L., Cioni, P. L., & Morelli, I. (2005). The inhibition of Candida albicans by selected essential oils and their major components. Mycopathologia, 159(3), 339-345.
                        • Of 35 medicinal plants tested, the essential oils from 13 plants showed anti-Candida activity: Aloysia triphylla (lemon verbena), Anthemis nobilis (Roman chamomile), Cymbopogon martini (palmarosa), Cymbopogon winterianus (lemongrass), Cyperus articulatus, Cyperus rotundus, Lippia alba, Mentha arvensis, Mikania glomerata, Mentha piperita, Mentha sp., Stachys byzantina, and Solidago chilensis. From: Duarte, M. C. T., Figueira, G. M., Sartoratto, A., Rehder, V. L. G., & Delarmelina, C. (2005). Anti-Candida activity of Brazilian medicinal plants. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 97(2), 305-311.
                        • Limonene and thymol were strongest against Fusarium verticillioides in vitro.  From:  Dambolena, J. S., López, A. G., Cánepa, M. C., Theumer, M. G., Zygadlo, J. A., & Rubinstein, H. R. (2008). Inhibitory effect of cyclic terpenes (limonene, menthol, menthone and thymol) on Fusarium verticillioides MRC 826 growth and fumonisin B1 biosynthesis. Toxicon, 51(1), 37-44.

                        LIME

                        • Limonene and thymol were strongest against Fusarium verticillioides in vitro.  From:  Dambolena, J. S., López, A. G., Cánepa, M. C., Theumer, M. G., Zygadlo, J. A., & Rubinstein, H. R. (2008). Inhibitory effect of cyclic terpenes (limonene, menthol, menthone and thymol) on Fusarium verticillioides MRC 826 growth and fumonisin B1 biosynthesis. Toxicon, 51(1), 37-44.

                        MANDARIN

                        • Lemon, mandarin, grapefruit, and orange oils were antifungal against food spoilage molds.  From:  Viuda-Martos, M., Ruiz-Navajas, Y., Fernández-López, J., & Pérez-Álvarez, J. (2008). Antifungal activity of lemon (Citrus lemon L.), mandarin (Citrus reticulata L.), grapefruit (Citrus paradisi L.) and orange (Citrus sinensis L.) essential oils. Food control, 19(12), 1130-1138.

                        MANUKA

                        • Manuka and kanuka essential oils showed antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory activity in vitro, and may be effective against human infectious microorganisms.  From:  Chen, C. C., Yan, S. H., Yen, M. Y., Wu, P. F., Liao, W. T., Huang, T. S., … & Wang, H. M. D. (2016). Investigations of kanuka and manuka essential oils for in vitro treatment of disease and cellular inflammation caused by infectious microorganisms. Journal of Microbiology, Immunology and Infection, 49(1), 104-111.

                        MARJORAM

                        • Penicillium digitatum fungus was inhibited completely by oregano, thyme, dictamus, and marjoram essential oils at low concentrations. From:  Daferera, D. J., Ziogas, B. N., & Polissiou, M. G. (2000). GC-MS analysis of essential oils from some Greek aromatic plants and their fungitoxicity on Penicillium digitatum. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 48(6), 2576-2581.
                        • Roman chamomile, curry plant, hyssop, lavandin, marjoram sweet, orange, mint, spearmint, monarda, oregano, rosemary, rue, sage, tansy, tarragon, thyme common and yarrow showed vapour activity against the fungi that causes ringworm. From:  Inouye, S., Uchida, K., & Abe, S. (2006). Volatile composition and vapour activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes of 36 aromatic herbs cultivated in Chichibu district in Japan. International Journal of Aromatherapy, 16(3), 159-168.

                        MUGWORT

                        • The following plants showed antifungal activity against the nine species tested in vitro:  Alnus rubra catkins (red alder tree), Artemisia ludoviciana (mugwort) aerial parts, Artemisia tridentata aerial parts, Geum macrophyllum roots, Mahonia aquifolium roots (oregon grape), Moneses uniflora aerial parts, Asarum caudatum whole plant (wild ginger), Balsamorhiza sagittata roots (arrowleaf balsamroot), Empetrum nigrum branches (crowberry), Fragaria chiloensis leaves (strawberry), Gilia aggregata aerial parts and roots, Glehnia littoralis roots, Heracleum lanatum roots (Indian celery), Heuchera cylindrica roots and Rhus glabra branches (sumac). From:  McCutcheon, A. R., Ellis, S. M., Hancock, R. E. W., & Towers, G. H. N. (1994). Antifungal screening of medicinal plants of British Columbian native peoples. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 44(3), 157-169.

                        MULLEIN

                        • Verbascum gypsicola (mullein) extracts had strong antimicrobial activity against gram positive bacteria and yeast,  lamb’s ear species were effective only against bacteria, and a sage species, Salvia aytachii demonstrated an effect against bacteria and yeast.  From:  Dulger, B., & Gonuz, A. (2004). Antimicrobial activity of some endemic Verbascum, Salvia, and Stachys species. Pharmaceutical biology, 42(4-5), 301-304.
                        • Acokanthera schimperi, Calpurnia aurea, Kalanchoe petitiana, Lippia adoensis, Malva parviflora, Olinia rochetiana, Phytolacca dodecandra and Verbascum sinaiticum showed varying degrees of antibacterial and antifungal activity against skin infections.  From:   Tadeg, H., Mohammed, E., Asres, K., & Gebre-Mariam, T. (2005). Antimicrobial activities of some selected traditional Ethiopian medicinal plants used in the treatment of skin disorders. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 100(1), 168-175.

                        MYRRH

                        • Myrrh extracts were tested against 20 pathogenic fungi and showed antifungal action.  From:  Al-Sabri, A. E., Moslem, M. A., Hadi, S., Yassin, M. A., & Ameen, F. (2015). Antifungal activity of Commiphora myrrha L. against some air fungi. J. Pure and Appl. Microbiol, 8(5), 3951-3955.
                        • Myrrh gum resin showed antibacterial and antifungal action against tested microbes.  From:  Alhussaini, M. S., Saadabi, A. M., Alghonaim, M. I., & Ibrahim, K. E. (2015). An evaluation of the Antimicrobial activity of Commiphora myrrha Nees (Engl.) oleo-gum resins from Saudi Arabia. Journal of Medical Sciences, 15(4), 198.

                        NEROLI

                        • Neroli essential oil had antibacterial and antifungal activity against a variety of microbes.  From:  Ammar, A. H., Bouajila, J., Lebrihi, A., Mathieu, F., Romdhane, M., & Zagrouba, F. (2012). Chemical composition and in vitro antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of Citrus aurantium l. flowers essential oil (Neroli oil). Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences, 15(21), 1034.
                        • Extracts from the peels, leaves, and flowers of Citrus aurantium showed varying antifungal action against P. italicum and P. digitatum in vitro.  From:  Trabelsi, D., Hamdane, A. M., Said, M. B., & Abdrrabba, M. (2016). Chemical composition and antifungal activity of essential oils from flowers, leaves and peels of Tunisian Citrus aurantium against Penicillium digitatum and Penicillium italicum. Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants, 19(7), 1660-1674.

                        NIAOULI

                        • Niaouli showed antioxidant, antibacterial, and antifungal activity in vitro.  From:  Siddique, S., Mazhar, S., & Parveen, Z. (2018). Chemical characterization, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of essential oil from Melaleuca quinquenervia leaves.
                        • Antibacterial activity of Australian tea tree, cajuput, niaouli, kanuka, manuka, and eucalyptus oil were assessed.  From:  Harkenthal, M., Reichling, J., Geiss, H. K., & Saller, R. (1999). Comparative study on the in vitro antibacterial activity of Australian tea tree oil, cajuput oil, niaouli oil, manuka oil, kanuka oil, and eucalyptus oil. Die Pharmazie, 54(6), 460-463.
                        • Anethole anisata, Callistris glaucophyllia, Melaleuca spp. and Thyptomine calycina, showed in vitro antimicrobial activity against multiple pathogens.  From:  Wilkinson, J. M., & Cavanagh, H. (2005). Antibacterial activity of essential oils from Australian native plants. Phytotherapy Research, 19(7), 643-646.
                        • Melaleuca alternifolia, Melaleuca quinquenervia and Backhousia citriodora showed antifungal activity against Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus carbonarius in vitro.  From:  de Andrade Santiago, J., das Graças Cardoso, M., Batista, L. R., Santiago, W. D., Passamani, F. R. F., Rodrigues, L. M. A., & Nelson, D. L. (2018). Effect of the essential oils from Melaleuca alternifolia, Melaleuca quinquenervia and Backhousia citriodora on the synthesis of ochratoxin A by Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus carbonarius isolated from tropical wine grapes. Journal of food science and technology, 55(1), 418-423.  

                        NONI

                        • Antibacterial and antifungal activity of noni was demonstrated in vitro against multiple test organisms.  From:  Jayaraman, S. K., Manoharan, M. S., & Illanchezian, S. (2008). Antibacterial, antifungal and tumor cell suppression potential of Morinda citrifolia fruit extracts. International journal of integrative biology, 3(1), 44-49.

                        NUTMEG

                        • Nutmeg showed in vitro and in vivo antifungal activities.  From:  Cho, J. Y., Choi, G. J., Son, S. W., Jang, K. S., Lim, H. K., Lee, S. O., … & Kim, J. C. (2007). Isolation and antifungal activity of lignans from Myristica fragrans against various plant pathogenic fungi. Pest Management Science, 63(9), 935-940.

                        ORANGE

                        • Lemon, mandarin, grapefruit, and orange oils were antifungal against food spoilage molds.  From:  Viuda-Martos, M., Ruiz-Navajas, Y., Fernández-López, J., & Pérez-Álvarez, J. (2008). Antifungal activity of lemon (Citrus lemon L.), mandarin (Citrus reticulata L.), grapefruit (Citrus paradisi L.) and orange (Citrus sinensis L.) essential oils. Food control, 19(12), 1130-1138.
                        • Roman chamomile, curry plant, hyssop, lavandin, marjoram sweet, orange, mint, spearmint, monarda, oregano, rosemary, rue, sage, tansy, tarragon, thyme common and yarrow showed vapour activity against the fungi that causes ringworm. From:  Inouye, S., Uchida, K., & Abe, S. (2006). Volatile composition and vapour activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes of 36 aromatic herbs cultivated in Chichibu district in Japan. International Journal of Aromatherapy, 16(3), 159-168.
                        • This was a review of research on fungal treatments including tea tree, solanum species, and bitter orange oil.  From:  Martin, K. W., & Ernst, E. (2004). Herbal medicines for treatment of fungal infections: a systematic review of controlled clinical trials. Mycoses, 47(3‐4), 87-92.
                        • Limonene and thymol were strongest against Fusarium verticillioides in vitro.  From:  Dambolena, J. S., López, A. G., Cánepa, M. C., Theumer, M. G., Zygadlo, J. A., & Rubinstein, H. R. (2008). Inhibitory effect of cyclic terpenes (limonene, menthol, menthone and thymol) on Fusarium verticillioides MRC 826 growth and fumonisin B1 biosynthesis. Toxicon, 51(1), 37-44.

                        OREGANO

                        • Oregano, thyme, cinnamon bark, lemongrass, clove, palmarose, peppermint, lavender, geranium Bourbon, and tea tree reduced fungus in heated footbath water.  From:  Inouye, S., Uchida, K., Nishiyama, Y., Hasumi, Y., Yamaguchi, H., & Abe, S. (2007). Combined effect of heat, essential oils and salt on the fungicidal activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes in foot bath. Nippon Ishinkin Gakkai Zasshi, 48(1), 27-36.
                        • Sixteen essential oils and forty-two pure constituents were tested against Candida albicans. Origanum vulgare, Satureja montana, Mentha piperita, Cinnamomum verum, and Cymbopogon flexuosus along with the  pure constituents (by family) of , β-phellandrene, carvacrol, 1-decanol, and trans-cynnamaldehyde.  From:  Tampieri, M. P., Galuppi, R., Macchioni, F., Carelle, M. S., Falcioni, L., Cioni, P. L., & Morelli, I. (2005). The inhibition of Candida albicans by selected essential oils and their major components. Mycopathologia, 159(3), 339-345.
                        • Clove and oregano oils were antifungal against the yeast: Saccharomyces cerevisiae.  From:  Chami, F., Chami, N., Bennis, S., Bouchikhi, T., & Remmal, A. (2005). Oregano and clove essential oils induce surface alteration of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Phytotherapy Research, 19(5), 405-408
                        • Essential oils of cinnamon, peppermint, basil, origanum, clove, and thyme caused a total inhibition of fungal development on maize kernels without a phytotoxic effect.  From:  Montes-Belmont, R., & Carvajal, M. (1998). Control of Aspergillus flavus in maize with plant essential oils and their components. Journal of Food Protection®, 61(5), 616-619.
                        • Penicillium digitatum fungus was inhibited completely by oregano, thyme, dictamus, and marjoram essential oils at low concentrations. From:  Daferera, D. J., Ziogas, B. N., & Polissiou, M. G. (2000). GC-MS analysis of essential oils from some Greek aromatic plants and their fungitoxicity on Penicillium digitatum. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 48(6), 2576-2581.
                        • Cinnamon, Mexican oregano, oregano, thyme, and ginger essential oils showed antifungal activity.  From:  Pozzatti, P., Scheid, L. A., Spader, T. B., Atayde, M. L., Santurio, J. M., & Alves, S. H. (2008). In vitro activity of essential oils extracted from plants used as spices against fluconazole-resistant and fluconazole-susceptible Candida spp. Canadian journal of microbiology, 54(11), 950-956.
                        • Cinnamon, thyme, oregano, and cumin stopped mycelial growth at the lowest concentration. From:  Tantaoui-Elaraki, A., & Beraoud, L. (1993). Inhibition of growth and aflatoxin production in Aspergillus parasiticus by essential oils of selected plant materials. Journal of environmental pathology, toxicology and oncology: official organ of the International Society for Environmental Toxicology and Cancer, 13(1), 67-72.
                        • Oregano, spearmint, lavender, and sage essential oils and the constituents of carvacrol and thymol exhibited antifungal properties against the human pathogens Malassezia furfur, Trichophyton rubrum, and Trichosporon beigelii. From:  Adam, K., Sivropoulou, A., Kokkini, S., Lanaras, T., & Arsenakis, M. (1998). Antifungal activities of Origanum vulgare subsp. hirtum, Mentha spicata, Lavandula angustifolia, and Salvia fruticosa essential oils against human pathogenic fungi. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 46(5), 1739-1745.
                        • Roman chamomile, curry plant, hyssop, lavandin, marjoram sweet, orange, mint, spearmint, monarda, oregano, rosemary, rue, sage, tansy, tarragon, thyme common and yarrow showed vapour activity against the fungi that causes ringworm. From:  Inouye, S., Uchida, K., & Abe, S. (2006). Volatile composition and vapour activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes of 36 aromatic herbs cultivated in Chichibu district in Japan. International Journal of Aromatherapy, 16(3), 159-168.
                        • Blends with Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Daucus carota, Eucalyptus globulus, Rosmarinus officinalis, Syzygium aromaticum, and Origanum vulgare showed in vitro antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral activities against antibiotic resistant pathogens, candida strains, and both the H1N1 and HSV1 viruses. From: Brochot, A., Guilbot, A., Haddioui, L., & Roques, C. (2017). Antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral effects of three essential oil blends. MicrobiologyOpen, 6(4), e00459.

                        OREGON GRAPE

                        • The following plants showed antifungal activity against the nine species tested in vitro:  Alnus rubra catkins (red alder tree), Artemisia ludoviciana (mugwort) aerial parts, Artemisia tridentata aerial parts, Geum macrophyllum roots, Mahonia aquifolium roots (oregon grape), Moneses uniflora aerial parts, Asarum caudatum whole plant (wild ginger), Balsamorhiza sagittata roots (arrowleaf balsamroot), Empetrum nigrum branches (crowberry), Fragaria chiloensis leaves (strawberry), Gilia aggregata aerial parts and roots, Glehnia littoralis roots, Heracleum lanatum roots (Indian celery), Heuchera cylindrica roots and Rhus glabra branches (sumac). From:  McCutcheon, A. R., Ellis, S. M., Hancock, R. E. W., & Towers, G. H. N. (1994). Antifungal screening of medicinal plants of British Columbian native peoples. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 44(3), 157-169.

                        PALMAROSA

                        • Palmarosa and cinnamon oils along with their phenolic compounds of thymol and carvacrol were the most fungitoxic against Cryptococcus neoformans common in late stage AIDS patients. Terpenoids, citral, geraniol, and citronellol also showed strong activity.  From:  Viollon, C., & Chaumont, J. P. (1994). Antifungal properties of essential oils and their main components upon Cryptococcus neoformans. Mycopathologia, 128(3), 151-153.
                        • Oregano, thyme, cinnamon bark, lemongrass, clove, palmarosa, peppermint, lavender, geranium Bourbon, and tea tree reduced fungus in heated footbath water.  From:  Inouye, S., Uchida, K., Nishiyama, Y., Hasumi, Y., Yamaguchi, H., & Abe, S. (2007). Combined effect of heat, essential oils and salt on the fungicidal activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes in foot bath. Nippon Ishinkin Gakkai Zasshi, 48(1), 27-36.
                        • Of 35 medicinal plants tested, the essential oils from 13 plants showed anti-Candida activity: Aloysia triphylla (lemon verbena), Anthemis nobilis (Roman chamomile), Cymbopogon martini (palmarosa), Cymbopogon winterianus (lemongrass), Cyperus articulatus, Cyperus rotundus, Lippia alba, Mentha arvensis, Mikania glomerata, Mentha piperita, Mentha sp., Stachys byzantina, and Solidago chilensis. From: Duarte, M. C. T., Figueira, G. M., Sartoratto, A., Rehder, V. L. G., & Delarmelina, C. (2005). Anti-Candida activity of Brazilian medicinal plants. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 97(2), 305-311.
                        • Among 49 essential oils tested, palmarosa (Cymbopogon martini), red thyme (Thymus zygis), cinnamon leaf (Cinnamomum zeylanicum), and clove buds (Eugenia caryophyllata) were the most antifungal activity against Botrytis cinerea.  From:  Wilson, C. L., Solar, J. M., El Ghaouth, A., & Wisniewski, M. E. (1997). Rapid evaluation of plant extracts and essential oils for antifungal activity against Botrytis cinerea. Plant disease, 81(2), 204-210.
                        • Chenopodium ambrosioides, Cymbopogon martinii (palmarosa), Cymbopogon nardus (citronella), Syzygium aromaticum (clove), and Pimenta racemosa (bay) were the most antifungal on the eight tested strains.  From:  Delespaul, Q., de Billerbeck, V. G., Roques, C. G., Michel, G., Marquier-Viñuales, C., & Bessière, J. M. (2000). The antifungal activity of essential oils as determined by different screening methods. Journal of essential oil research, 12(2), 256-266.

                        PATCHOULI

                        • Pseudolarix kaempferi, Sophora flavescens, Pogostemon cablin, Alpinia officinarum, Eugenia caryophyllata, Melia toosendan, and Polygonum hydropiper showed the strongest antifungal activity of tested Chinese plants.  From:  Liu, Q., Luyten, W., Pellens, K., Wang, Y., Wang, W., Thevissen, K., … & Luo, G. (2012). Antifungal activity in plants from Chinese traditional and folk medicine. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 143(3), 772-778.

                        PEPPERMINT

                        • Oregano, thyme, cinnamon bark, lemongrass, clove, palmarosa, peppermint, lavender, geranium Bourbon, and tea tree reduced fungus in heated footbath water.  From:  Inouye, S., Uchida, K., Nishiyama, Y., Hasumi, Y., Yamaguchi, H., & Abe, S. (2007). Combined effect of heat, essential oils and salt on the fungicidal activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes in foot bath. Nippon Ishinkin Gakkai Zasshi, 48(1), 27-36.
                        • Sixteen essential oils and forty-two pure constituents were tested against Candida albicans. Origanum vulgare, Satureja montana, Mentha piperita, Cinnamomum verum, and Cymbopogon flexuosus along with the  pure constituents (by family) of , β-phellandrene, carvacrol, 1-decanol, and trans-cynnamaldehyde.  From:  Tampieri, M. P., Galuppi, R., Macchioni, F., Carelle, M. S., Falcioni, L., Cioni, P. L., & Morelli, I. (2005). The inhibition of Candida albicans by selected essential oils and their major components. Mycopathologia, 159(3), 339-345.
                        • In vitro anti-candidal activity of Mentha piperita essential oil and its major constituents was demonstrated.  From:  Samber, N., Khan, A., Varma, A., & Manzoor, N. (2015). Synergistic anti-candidal activity and mode of action of Mentha piperita essential oil and its major components. Pharmaceutical biology, 53(10), 1496-1504.
                        • Of 35 medicinal plants tested, the essential oils from 13 plants showed anti-Candida activity: Aloysia triphylla (lemon verbena), Anthemis nobilis (Roman chamomile), Cymbopogon martini (palmarosa), Cymbopogon winterianus (lemongrass), Cyperus articulatus, Cyperus rotundus, Lippia alba, Mentha arvensis, Mikania glomerata, Mentha piperita, Mentha sp., Stachys byzantina, and Solidago chilensis. From: Duarte, M. C. T., Figueira, G. M., Sartoratto, A., Rehder, V. L. G., & Delarmelina, C. (2005). Anti-Candida activity of Brazilian medicinal plants. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 97(2), 305-311.
                        • Thirty plant oils were tested and eucalyptus, peppermint, ginger grass and clove showed strong antifungal activity against Candida albicans.  From:  Agarwal, V., Lal, P., & Pruthi, V. (2008). Prevention of Candida albicans biofilm by plant oils. Mycopathologia, 165(1), 13-19.
                        • The high fungistatic effects of clove and peppermint oils may be useful for treating skin fungi.  From:  El-Naghy, M. A., Maghazy, S. N., Fadl-Allah, E. M., & El-Gendy, Z. K. (1992). Fungistatic action of natural oils and fatty acids on dermatophytic and saprophytic fungi. Zentralblatt für Mikrobiologie, 147(3), 214-220.
                        • Essential oils of cinnamon, peppermint, basil, origanum, clove, and thyme caused a total inhibition of fungal development on maize kernels without a phytotoxic effect.  From:  Montes-Belmont, R., & Carvajal, M. (1998). Control of Aspergillus flavus in maize with plant essential oils and their components. Journal of Food Protection®, 61(5), 616-619.
                        • Camphor, menthol, thymol and oil of Eucalyptus citriodora were the most efficacious components against the test toe fungus organisms.  From:  Ramsewak, R. S., Nair, M. G., Stommel, M., & Selanders, L. (2003). In vitro antagonistic activity of monoterpenes and their mixtures against toe nail fungus pathogens. Phytotherapy Research, 17(4), 376-379
                        • Roman chamomile, curry plant, hyssop, lavandin, marjoram sweet, orange, mint, spearmint, monarda, oregano, rosemary, rue, sage, tansy, tarragon, thyme common and yarrow showed vapour activity against the fungi that causes ringworm. From:  Inouye, S., Uchida, K., & Abe, S. (2006). Volatile composition and vapour activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes of 36 aromatic herbs cultivated in Chichibu district in Japan. International Journal of Aromatherapy, 16(3), 159-168.

                        PETITGRAIN

                        • Antifungal and antibacterial actions of petitgrain essential oil were tested in vitro.  From:  Gniewosz, M., Kraśniewska, K., Kosakowska, O., Pobiega, K., & Wolska, I. (2017). Chemical compounds and antimicrobial activity of petitgrain (Citrus aurantium L. var. amara) essential oil. Herba Polonica, 63(4), 18-25.
                        • Extracts from the peels, leaves, and flowers of Citrus aurantium showed varying antifungal action against P. italicum and P. digitatum in vitro.  From:  Trabelsi, D., Hamdane, A. M., Said, M. B., & Abdrrabba, M. (2016). Chemical composition and antifungal activity of essential oils from flowers, leaves and peels of Tunisian Citrus aurantium against Penicillium digitatum and Penicillium italicum. Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants, 19(7), 1660-1674.

                        PINE

                        • At a dilution of 2.5%, pine oil was effective against certain airborne fungi.  This can help improve indoor air quality.  From:  Motiejūnaitė, O., & Dalia Pečiulytė, D. (2004). Fungicidal properties of Pinus sylvestris L. for improvement of air quality. Medicina (Kaunas), 8, 787-794.
                        • Pinus sylvestris was fungicidal against pathogens that affect building air quality.  From:  Motiejūnaitė, O., & Dalia Pečiulytė, D. (2004). Fungicidal properties of Pinus sylvestris L. for improvement of air quality. Medicina (Kaunas), 8, 787-794.

                        ROSEMARY

                        • Rosemary from Sardinia showed strong antifungal activity.  From:  Angioni, A., Barra, A., Cereti, E., Barile, D., Coïsson, J. D., Arlorio, M., … & Cabras, P. (2004). Chemical composition, plant genetic differences, antimicrobial and antifungal activity investigation of the essential oil of Rosmarinus officinalis L. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 52(11), 3530-3535.
                        • Complete inhibition of mycelial growth and aflatoxin production by the fungus Aspergillus parasticus were achieved by these oils:  thyme, cumin, clove, caraway, rosemary, and sage. From:  Farag, R. S., Daw, Z. Y., & Abo‐Raya, S. H. (1989). Influence of some spice essential oils on Aspergillus parasiticus growth and production of aflatoxins in a synthetic medium. Journal of Food Science, 54(1), 74-76.
                        • Rosemary demonstrated antifungal activity.  From:  Özcan, M. M., & Chalchat, J. C. (2008). Chemical composition and antifungal activity of rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) oil from Turkey. International journal of food sciences and nutrition, 59(7-8), 691-698.
                        • Rosemary, and sage essential oil and the component eucalyptol were active against yeast strains.  From:  Steinmetz, M. D., Moulin‐Traffort, J., & Regli, P. (1988). Transmission and Scanning Electronmicroscopy Study of the Action of Sage and Rosemary Essential Oils and Eucalyptol on Candida albicans/Transmissions‐und rasterelektronenmikroskopische Untersuchungen zur Wirkung von Salbeiöl, Rosmarinöl und Eucalyptol auf Candida albicans. Mycoses, 31(1), 40-51.
                        • Roman chamomile, curry plant, hyssop, lavandin, marjoram sweet, orange, mint, spearmint, monarda, oregano, rosemary, rue, sage, tansy, tarragon, thyme common and yarrow showed vapour activity against the fungi that causes ringworm. From:  Inouye, S., Uchida, K., & Abe, S. (2006). Volatile composition and vapour activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes of 36 aromatic herbs cultivated in Chichibu district in Japan. International Journal of Aromatherapy, 16(3), 159-168.
                        • Blends with Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Daucus carota, Eucalyptus globulus, Rosmarinus officinalis, Syzygium aromaticum, and Origanum vulgare showed in vitro antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral activities against antibiotic resistant pathogens, candida strains, and both the H1N1 and HSV1 viruses. From: Brochot, A., Guilbot, A., Haddioui, L., & Roques, C. (2017). Antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral effects of three essential oil blends. MicrobiologyOpen, 6(4), e00459.

                        RUE

                        • Roman chamomile, curry plant, hyssop, lavandin, marjoram sweet, orange, mint, spearmint, monarda, oregano, rosemary, rue, sage, tansy, tarragon, thyme common and yarrow showed vapour activity against the fungi that causes ringworm. From:  Inouye, S., Uchida, K., & Abe, S. (2006). Volatile composition and vapour activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes of 36 aromatic herbs cultivated in Chichibu district in Japan. International Journal of Aromatherapy, 16(3), 159-168.

                        SAGE

                        • Complete inhibition of mycelial growth and aflatoxin production by the fungus Aspergillus parasticus were achieved by these oils:  thyme, cumin, clove, caraway, rosemary, and sage. From:  Farag, R. S., Daw, Z. Y., & Abo‐Raya, S. H. (1989). Influence of some spice essential oils on Aspergillus parasiticus growth and production of aflatoxins in a synthetic medium. Journal of Food Science, 54(1), 74-76.
                        • Rosemary, and sage essential oil and the component eucalyptol were active against yeast strains.  From:  Steinmetz, M. D., Moulin‐Traffort, J., & Regli, P. (1988). Transmission and Scanning Electronmicroscopy Study of the Action of Sage and Rosemary Essential Oils and Eucalyptol on Candida albicans/Transmissions‐und rasterelektronenmikroskopische Untersuchungen zur Wirkung von Salbeiöl, Rosmarinöl und Eucalyptol auf Candida albicans. Mycoses, 31(1), 40-51.
                        • Oregano, spearmint, lavender, and sage essential oils and the constituents of carvacrol and thymol exhibited antifungal properties against the human pathogens Malassezia furfur, Trichophyton rubrum, and Trichosporon beigelii. From:  Adam, K., Sivropoulou, A., Kokkini, S., Lanaras, T., & Arsenakis, M. (1998). Antifungal activities of Origanum vulgare subsp. hirtum, Mentha spicata, Lavandula angustifolia, and Salvia fruticosa essential oils against human pathogenic fungi. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 46(5), 1739-1745.
                        • Roman chamomile, curry plant, hyssop, lavandin, marjoram sweet, orange, mint, spearmint, monarda, oregano, rosemary, rue, sage, tansy, tarragon, thyme common and yarrow showed vapour activity against the fungi that causes ringworm. From:  Inouye, S., Uchida, K., & Abe, S. (2006). Volatile composition and vapour activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes of 36 aromatic herbs cultivated in Chichibu district in Japan. International Journal of Aromatherapy, 16(3), 159-168.

                        SAVORY

                        • Sixteen essential oils and forty-two pure constituents were tested against Candida albicans. Origanum vulgare, Satureja montana, Mentha piperita, Cinnamomum verum, and Cymbopogon flexuosus along with the  pure constituents (by family) of , β-phellandrene, carvacrol, 1-decanol, and trans-cynnamaldehyde.  From:  Tampieri, M. P., Galuppi, R., Macchioni, F., Carelle, M. S., Falcioni, L., Cioni, P. L., & Morelli, I. (2005). The inhibition of Candida albicans by selected essential oils and their major components. Mycopathologia, 159(3), 339-345.
                        • Savory was antifungal against Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium oxysporum, Botrytis cinerea and Alternaria citri. From:  Boyraz, N., & Özcan, M. (2005). Antifungal effect of some spice hydrosols. Fitoterapia, 76(7), 661-665.

                        SPEARMINT

                        • Oregano, spearmint, lavender, and sage essential oils and the constituents of carvacrol and thymol exhibited antifungal properties against the human pathogens Malassezia furfur, Trichophyton rubrum, and Trichosporon beigelii. From:  Adam, K., Sivropoulou, A., Kokkini, S., Lanaras, T., & Arsenakis, M. (1998). Antifungal activities of Origanum vulgare subsp. hirtum, Mentha spicata, Lavandula angustifolia, and Salvia fruticosa essential oils against human pathogenic fungi. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 46(5), 1739-1745.
                        • Roman chamomile, curry plant, hyssop, lavandin, marjoram sweet, orange, mint, spearmint, monarda, oregano, rosemary, rue, sage, tansy, tarragon, thyme common and yarrow showed vapour activity against the fungi that causes ringworm. From:  Inouye, S., Uchida, K., & Abe, S. (2006). Volatile composition and vapour activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes of 36 aromatic herbs cultivated in Chichibu district in Japan. International Journal of Aromatherapy, 16(3), 159-168.

                        SPRUCE

                        • Alpha pinene showed antimicrobial, antifungal, antibacterial activity in vitro.  From:  Silva, A. C. R. D., Lopes, P. M., Azevedo, M. M. B. D., Costa, D. C. M., Alviano, C. S., & Alviano, D. S. (2012). Biological activities of a-pinene and β-pinene enantiomers. Molecules, 17(6), 6305-6316.

                        TANSY

                        • Roman chamomile, curry plant, hyssop, lavandin, marjoram sweet, orange, mint, spearmint, monarda, oregano, rosemary, rue, sage, tansy, tarragon, thyme common and yarrow showed vapour activity against the fungi that causes ringworm. From:  Inouye, S., Uchida, K., & Abe, S. (2006). Volatile composition and vapour activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes of 36 aromatic herbs cultivated in Chichibu district in Japan. International Journal of Aromatherapy, 16(3), 159-168.
                        • In vitro antifungal activity was demonstrated against multiple species by essential oil from blue tansy containing 13% camphor and 22% sabinene. From: Greche, H., Hajjaji, N., Ismaili-Alaoui, M., Mrabet, N., & Benjilali, B. (2000). Chemical composition and antifungal properties of the essential oil of Tanacetum annuum. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 12(1), 122-124.

                        TARRAGON

                        • Roman chamomile, curry plant, hyssop, lavandin, marjoram sweet, orange, mint, spearmint, monarda, oregano, rosemary, rue, sage, tansy, tarragon, thyme common and yarrow showed vapour activity against the fungi that causes ringworm. From:  Inouye, S., Uchida, K., & Abe, S. (2006). Volatile composition and vapour activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes of 36 aromatic herbs cultivated in Chichibu district in Japan. International Journal of Aromatherapy, 16(3), 159-168.

                        TEA TREE

                        • In a randomized double blind study (104 patients), tea tree oil was as effective as tolfonate in reducing symptoms of tinea pedis.  From:  Tong, M. M., Altman, P. M., & Barnetson, R. S. (1992). Tea tree oil in the treatment of tinea pedis. Australasian Journal of Dermatology, 33(3), 145-149
                        • In a randomized, controlled, double blind study of tea tree oil in treating 158 patients with athlete’s foot; there was a cure rate of 64% after four weeks of applying a 50% solution twice a day; four patients had a dermatitis reaction that stopped when the oil was no longer applied.  From:  Satchell, A. C., Saurajen, A., Bell, C., & Barnetson, R. S. (2002). Treatment of interdigital tinea pedis with 25% and 50% tea tree oil solution: A randomized, placebo‐controlled, blinded study. Australasian journal of dermatology, 43
                        • (3), 175-178.
                        • Tea tree showed antifungal activity against yeasts from cancer patients’ mouths in vitro.  From:  Bagg, J., Jackson, M. S., Sweeney, M. P., Ramage, G., & Davies, A. N. (2006). Susceptibility to Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) oil of yeasts isolated from the mouths of patients with advanced cancer. Oral Oncology, 42(5), 487-492. 
                        • The combination of essential oil of M. alternifolia with organically bound iodine was effective against the viral skin disease molluscum contagiosum in children.  From:  Markum, E., & Baillie, J. (2012). Combination of essential oil of Melaleuca alternifolia and iodine in the treatment of molluscum contagiosum in children. Journal of drugs in dermatology: JDD, 11(3), 349-354. 
                        • Tea tree oral solution was effective for AIDS patients with oropharyngeal candidiasis refractory to fluconazole.  From:  Jandourek, A., Vaishampayan, J. K., & Vazquez, J. A. (1998). Efficacy of melaleuca oral solution for the treatment of fluconazole refractory oral candidiasis in AIDS patients. Aids, 12(9), 1033-1037.
                        • Melaleuca oral solutions reduced oropharyngeal candidiasis refractory to fluconazole in AIDS patients. From:  Vazquez, J. A., & Zawawi, A. A. (2002). Efficacy of alcohol-based and alcohol-free melaleuca oral solution for the treatment of fluconazole-refractory oropharyngeal candidiasis in patients with AIDS. HIV clinical trials, 3(5), 379-385.
                        • Tea tree oil reduced symptoms of tinea pedis.  From:  Tong, M. M., Altman, P. M., & Barnetson, R. S. (1992). Tea tree oil in the treatment of tinea pedis. Australasian Journal of Dermatology, 33(3), 145-149
                        • In a double blind study, tea tree oil at 25% and 50% dilution reduced athlete’s foot; four patients had a dermatitis reaction that stopped when the oil was no longer applied.  From:  Satchell, A. C., Saurajen, A., Bell, C., & Barnetson, R. S. (2002). Treatment of interdigital tinea pedis with 25% and 50% tea tree oil solution: A randomized, placebo‐controlled, blinded study. Australasian journal of dermatology, 43(3), 175-178.
                        • Oregano, thyme, cinnamon bark, lemongrass, clove, palmarosa, peppermint, lavender, geranium Bourbon, and tea tree reduced fungus in heated footbath water.  From:  Inouye, S., Uchida, K., Nishiyama, Y., Hasumi, Y., Yamaguchi, H., & Abe, S. (2007). Combined effect of heat, essential oils and salt on the fungicidal activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes in foot bath. Nippon Ishinkin Gakkai Zasshi, 48(1), 27-36.
                        • Tea tree oil was antifungal against Candida albicans, Candida glabrata and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. From:  Hammer, K. A., Carson, C. F., & Riley, T. V. (2004). Antifungal effects of Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) oil and its components on Candida albicans, Candida glabrata and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 53(6), 1081-1085.
                        • Terpinen-4-ol (from tea tree) was active against candida species in the rat vagina.  From:  Mondello, F., De Bernardis, F., Girolamo, A., Cassone, A., & Salvatore, G. (2006). In vivo activity of terpinen-4-ol, the main bioactive component of Melaleuca alternifolia Cheel (tea tree) oil against azole-susceptible and-resistant human pathogenic Candida species. BMC infectious diseases, 6(1), 158.
                        • Tea tree has shown activity against the following fungi in multiple cited studies: Alternaria spp., Aspergillus flavus, A. funigatus, A. niger, Blastoschizomyces capitanis, Candida albicans, C. glabrata, C. parapsilosis, C. tropicalis, Cladosporium spp., Cryptococcus neoformans, Epidermophyton flocossum, Fusarium spp.,k Malassezia furfur, M. sympodialis, Microsporum canis, M. gypseu8m, Penicillium spp., Rhodotorula rubra, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Trichophyton mentagrpphytes, T. rubrum, T. tonsurans, and Trichosporon spp.   From:  Carson, C. F., Hammer, K. A., & Riley, T. V. (2006). Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) oil: a review of antimicrobial and other medicinal properties. Clinical microbiology reviews, 19(1), 50-62. 
                        • Tea tree and lavender oil combined synergistically were effective against the following fungi:  Trichophyton rubrum and T. mentagrophytes var. interdigitale. From:  Cassella, S., Cassella, J. P., & Smith, I. (2002). Synergistic antifungal activity of tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) and lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) essential oils against dermatophyte infection. International Journal of Aromatherapy, 12(1), 2-15. 
                        • M. alternifolia oil mixed with tissue conditioner was effective in treating denture stomatitis.  From:  Catalán, A., Pacheco, J. G., Martínez, A., & Mondaca, M. A. (2008). In vitro and in vivo activity of Melaleuca alternifolia mixed with tissue conditioner on Candida albicans. Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathology, Oral Radiology, and Endodontology, 105(3), 327-332.
                        • Tea tree oil showed action against Candida albicans and maybe useful in treating fungal mucosal and cutaneous infections.  From:  D’auria, F. D., Laino, L., Strippoli, V., Tecca, M., Salvatore, G., Battinelli, L., & Mazzanti, G. (2001). In vitro activity of tea tree oil against Candida albicans mycelial conversion and other pathogenic fungi. Journal of chemotherapy, 13(4), 377-383.
                        • Tea tree oil was inhibitory against a variety of fungi tested.  From:  Hammer, K. A., Carson, C. F., & Riley, T. V. (2002). In vitro activity of Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) oil against dermatophytes and other filamentous fungi. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 50(2), 195-199.
                        • Tea tree oil’s antifungal action was related to compromising membrane function.  From:  Hammer, K. A., Carson, C. F., & Riley, T. V. (2004). Antifungal effects of Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) oil and its components on Candida albicans, Candida glabrata and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 53(6), 1081-1085.
                        • This was a review of research on fungal treatments including tea tree, solanum species, and bitter orange oil.  From:  Martin, K. W., & Ernst, E. (2004). Herbal medicines for treatment of fungal infections: a systematic review of controlled clinical trials. Mycoses, 47(3‐4), 87-92.
                        • Tea tree oil was effective against tested fungi including C. albicans.  From:  Mondello, F., De Bernardis, F., Girolamo, A., Salvatore, G., & Cassone, A. (2003). In vitro and in vivo activity of tea tree oil against azole-susceptible and-resistant human pathogenic yeasts. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 51(5), 1223-1229.
                        • Antifungal activity of tea tree oil was demonstrated in vitro.  From:  Nenoff, P., Haustein, U. F., & Brandt, W. (1996). Antifungal activity of the essential oil of Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree oil) against pathogenic fungi in vitro. Skin Pharmacology and Physiology, 9(6), 388-394.
                        • Tree tree oil and its terpinen-4-ol constituent were antifungal against multiple tested organisms.   From:  Oliva, B., Piccirilli, E., Ceddia, T., Pontieri, E., Aureli, P., & Ferrini, A. M. (2003). Antimycotic activity of Melaleuca alternifolia essential oil and its major components. Letters in applied microbiology, 37(2), 185-187.
                        • Tea tree oil was active against Madurella mycetomatis (Madura foot). From:  van de Sande, W. W., Fahal, A. H., Riley, T. V., Verbrugh, H., & van Belkum, A. (2007). In vitro susceptibility of Madurella mycetomatis, prime agent of Madura foot, to tea tree oil and artemisinin. Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy, 59(3), 553-555.

                        THYME

                        • Oregano, thyme, cinnamon bark, lemongrass, clove, palmarosa, peppermint, lavender, geranium Bourbon, and tea tree reduced fungus in heated footbath water.  From:  Inouye, S., Uchida, K., Nishiyama, Y., Hasumi, Y., Yamaguchi, H., & Abe, S. (2007). Combined effect of heat, essential oils and salt on the fungicidal activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes in foot bath. Nippon Ishinkin Gakkai Zasshi, 48(1), 27-36.
                        • Sixteen essential oils and forty-two pure constituents were tested against Candida albicans. Origanum vulgare, Satureja montana, Mentha piperita, Cinnamomum verum, and Cymbopogon flexuosus along with the  pure constituents (by family) of , β-phellandrene, carvacrol, 1-decanol, and trans-cynnamaldehyde.  From:  Tampieri, M. P., Galuppi, R., Macchioni, F., Carelle, M. S., Falcioni, L., Cioni, P. L., & Morelli, I. (2005). The inhibition of Candida albicans by selected essential oils and their major components. Mycopathologia, 159(3), 339-345.
                        • Among 49 essential oils tested, palmarosa (Cymbopogon martini), red thyme (Thymus zygis), cinnamon leaf (Cinnamomum zeylanicum), and clove buds (Eugenia caryophyllata) were the most antifungal activity against Botrytis cinerea.  From:  Wilson, C. L., Solar, J. M., El Ghaouth, A., & Wisniewski, M. E. (1997). Rapid evaluation of plant extracts and essential oils for antifungal activity against Botrytis cinerea. Plant disease, 81(2), 204-210.
                        • Thymol and carvacrol of Thymus glandulosus and Origanum compactum exhibited the strongest antifungal activity.  From:  Bouchra, C., Achouri, M., Hassani, L. I., & Hmamouchi, M. (2003). Chemical composition and antifungal activity of essential oils of seven Moroccan Labiatae against Botrytis cinerea Pers: Fr. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 89(1), 165-169.
                        • Essential oils of cinnamon, peppermint, basil, origanum, clove, and thyme caused a total inhibition of fungal development on maize kernels without a phytotoxic effect.  From:  Montes-Belmont, R., & Carvajal, M. (1998). Control of Aspergillus flavus in maize with plant essential oils and their components. Journal of Food Protection®, 61(5), 616-619.
                        • Camphor, menthol, thymol and oil of Eucalyptus citriodora were the most efficacious components against the test toe fungus organisms.  From:  Ramsewak, R. S., Nair, M. G., Stommel, M., & Selanders, L. (2003). In vitro antagonistic activity of monoterpenes and their mixtures against toe nail fungus pathogens. Phytotherapy Research, 17(4), 376-379
                        • Penicillium digitatum fungus was inhibited completely by oregano, thyme, dictamus, and marjoram essential oils at low concentrations. From:  Daferera, D. J., Ziogas, B. N., & Polissiou, M. G. (2000). GC-MS analysis of essential oils from some Greek aromatic plants and their fungitoxicity on Penicillium digitatum. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 48(6), 2576-2581.
                        • Complete inhibition of mycelial growth and aflatoxin production by the fungus Aspergillus parasticus were achieved by these oils:  thyme, cumin, clove, caraway, rosemary, and sage. From:  Farag, R. S., Daw, Z. Y., & Abo‐Raya, S. H. (1989). Influence of some spice essential oils on Aspergillus parasiticus growth and production of aflatoxins in a synthetic medium. Journal of Food Science, 54(1), 74-76.
                        • Cinnamon, Mexican oregano, oregano, thyme, and ginger essential oils showed antifungal activity.  From:  Pozzatti, P., Scheid, L. A., Spader, T. B., Atayde, M. L., Santurio, J. M., & Alves, S. H. (2008). In vitro activity of essential oils extracted from plants used as spices against fluconazole-resistant and fluconazole-susceptible Candida spp. Canadian journal of microbiology, 54(11), 950-956.
                        • Cinnamon, thyme, oregano, and cumin stopped mycelial growth at the lowest concentration. From:  Tantaoui-Elaraki, A., & Beraoud, L. (1993). Inhibition of growth and aflatoxin production in Aspergillus parasiticus by essential oils of selected plant materials. Journal of environmental pathology, toxicology and oncology: official organ of the International Society for Environmental Toxicology and Cancer, 13(1), 67-72.
                        • Roman chamomile, curry plant, hyssop, lavandin, marjoram sweet, orange, mint, spearmint, monarda, oregano, rosemary, rue, sage, tansy, tarragon, thyme common and yarrow showed vapour activity against the fungi that causes ringworm. From:  Inouye, S., Uchida, K., & Abe, S. (2006). Volatile composition and vapour activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes of 36 aromatic herbs cultivated in Chichibu district in Japan. International Journal of Aromatherapy, 16(3), 159-168.
                        • Antifungal activity of thymol as it affects gene expression were assessed.  From:  Bi, X., Guo, N., Jin, J., Liu, J., Feng, H., Shi, J., … & Yan, S. (2010). The global gene expression profile of the model fungus Saccharomyces cerevisiae induced by thymol. Journal of applied microbiology, 108(2), 712-722.
                        • Thymus vulgaris showed strong anticandidal activity against the Clotramazole resistant pathogen.  From:  Bonjar, G. S. (2004). Inhibition of Clotrimazole-resistant Candida albicans by plants used in Iranian folkloric medicine. Fitoterapia, 75(1), 74-76.
                        • Thymol reduced biofilm formation of Candida albicans.  From:  Braga, P. C., Culici, M., Alfieri, M., & Dal Sasso, M. (2008). Thymol inhibits Candida albicans biofilm formation and mature biofilm. International journal of antimicrobial agents, 31(5), 472-477.
                        • The in vitro study demonstrated antibiofilm activity of carvacrol, geraniol, and thymol against Candida.  From:  Dalleau, S., Cateau, E., Bergès, T., Berjeaud, J. M., & Imbert, C. (2008). In vitro activity of terpenes against Candida biofilms. International journal of antimicrobial agents, 31(6), 572-576.
                        • Limonene and thymol were strongest against Fusarium verticillioides in vitro.  From:  Dambolena, J. S., López, A. G., Cánepa, M. C., Theumer, M. G., Zygadlo, J. A., & Rubinstein, H. R. (2008). Inhibitory effect of cyclic terpenes (limonene, menthol, menthone and thymol) on Fusarium verticillioides MRC 826 growth and fumonisin B1 biosynthesis. Toxicon, 51(1), 37-44.
                        • Thyme essential oil and its component thymol showed activity against the fungus causing mucormycoses.  From:  de Lira Mota, K. S., de Oliveira Pereira, F., de Oliveira, W. A., Lima, I. O., & de Oliveira Lima, E. (2012). Antifungal activity of Thymus vulgaris L. essential oil and its constituent phytochemicals against Rhizopus oryzae: interaction with ergosterol. Molecules, 17(12), 14418-14433.
                        • Tested essential oils showed antifungal activity against tested fungi.  From:  Gucwa, K., Milewski, S., Dymerski, T., & Szweda, P. (2018). Investigation of the Antifungal Activity and Mode of Action of Thymus vulgaris, Citrus limonum, Pelargonium graveolens, Cinnamomum cassia, Ocimum basilicum, and Eugenia caryophyllus Essential Oils. Molecules, 23(5), 1116.
                        • Cinnamon, lemon, basil, thyme, geranium, and clove showed high antifungal activity against Candida ssp. in vitro.  From:  Szweda, P., Gucwa, K., Kurzyk, E., Romanowska, E., Dzierżanowska-Fangrat, K., Jurek, A. Z., … & Milewski, S. (2015). Essential oils, silver nanoparticles and propolis as alternative agents against fluconazole resistant Candida albicans, Candida glabrata and Candida krusei clinical isolates. Indian journal of microbiology, 55(2), 175-183.

                        VETIVER

                        • Vetiver oil from both North and South India were antifungal against the tested microbe.  From:  Dubey, N., Raghav, C. S., Gupta, R. L., & Chhonkar, S. S. (2010). Chemical composition and antifungal activity of vetiver oil of North and South India against Rhizoctonia solani. Pest Res J, 22, 63-67.

                        YARROW

                        • Roman chamomile, curry plant, hyssop, lavandin, marjoram sweet, orange, mint, spearmint, monarda, oregano, rosemary, rue, sage, tansy, tarragon, thyme common and yarrow showed vapour activity against the fungi that causes ringworm. From:  Inouye, S., Uchida, K., & Abe, S. (2006). Volatile composition and vapour activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes of 36 aromatic herbs cultivated in Chichibu district in Japan. International Journal of Aromatherapy, 16(3), 159-168.
                        • Achillea millefolium and three other Achillea species showed in vitro antimicrobial activity against tested bacteria, including Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia, Pseudomonas aueruginosa, and Salmonella enteritidis.  The four species showed antifungal activity against Aspergillus niger and Candida albicans. From:  Stojanović, G., Radulović, N., Hashimoto, T., & Palić, R. (2005). In vitro antimicrobial activity of extracts of four Achillea species: The composition of Achillea clavennae L.(Asteraceae) extract. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 101(1), 185-190.

                        YELLOW DOCK

                        • R. crispus extracts were fungicidal against tested plant fungi.  From:  Kim, J. C., Choi, G. J., Lee, S. W., Kim, J. S., Chung, K. Y., & Cho, K. Y. (2004). Screening extracts of Achyranthes japonica and Rumex crispus for activity against various plant pathogenic fungi and control of powdery mildew. Pest management science, 60(8), 803-808.

                        YLANG YLANG

                        • Cananga odorata, Boswellia thurifera, Cymbopogon citratus, Marjorana hortensis, Ocimum basilicum, Rosmarinus officinalis, Cinnamomum zeylanicum and Citrus limon exhibited considerable inhibitory effect against all the bacteria and fungi tested, and also demonstrated antioxidant activity comparable with α-tocopherol and butylated hydroxytoluene.  From:  Baratta, M. T., Dorman, H. J., Deans, S. G., Figueiredo, A. C., Barroso, J. G., & Ruberto, G. (1998). Antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of some commercial essential oils. Flavour and fragrance journal, 13(4), 235-244.
                        • The following commercially bought oils showed antimicrobial activity against multiple pathogens:  patchouli (Pogostemon cablin), myrrh (Commiphora myrrha), bergamot (Citrus bergamia), geranium (Geranium maculatum), sandalwood (Santalum album), ylang ylang (Cananga odorata), tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia), and lavender (Lavendula officinalis).   From:  Maudsley, F., & Kerr, K. G. (1999). Microbiological safety of essential oils used in complementary therapies and the activity of these compounds against bacterial and fungal pathogens. Supportive care in cancer, 7(2), 100-102.

                         

                        Compiled by: Kathy Sadowski

                        Last Updated: 2/19/2020

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