Basil (Ocimum Basillicum) Research

Latin Name: Ocimum basillicum

Family: Lamiaceae

Basil has many chemo-varieties.  It is used across the world as both an herb and spice.  Much research has been done on this aromatic herb.  As a folk remedy, basil species, known as Tulsi in India, have been used in Ayurvedic and Siddha medicine for centuries.

The listings of research below represent a compilation of scientific articles found on the species, with a very brief overview description of each article/study.  Research found is catalogued by therapeutic action.  This categorized compilation of research articles does not necessarily imply that there are adequate results to demonstrate safe and/or effective human use.

RESEARCH

GENERAL

• A review of human studies on tulsi (holy basil: Ocimum sanctum or Ocimum tenuiflorum or Ocimum gratissimum) was conducted; 24 studies found safe and effective results related to metabolism, cardiovascular disease, immunity, and neural conditions. From:  Jamshidi, N., & Cohen, M. M. (2017). The clinical efficacy and safety of Tulsi in humans: a systematic review of the literature. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2017.
• Lis-Balchin, M.  (2006). Aromatherapy science, A guide for healthcare professionals.  Pharmaceutical Press:  London.
• Grayer, R. J., Kite, G. C., Goldstone, F. J., Bryan, S. E., Paton, A., & Putievsky, E. (1996). Infraspecific taxonomy and essential oil chemotypes in sweet basil, Ocimum basilicum. Phytochemistry, 43(5), 1033-1039.
• Natural Medicines (2018).  Basil Monograph.  Retrieved in July, 2018.  Retrieved from:  https://naturalmedicines.therapeuticresearch.com/databases/food,-herbs-supplements/professional.aspx?productid=303#safety
• Hussain, A. I., Anwar, F., Sherazi, S. T. H., & Przybylski, R. (2008). Chemical composition, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of basil (Ocimum basilicum) essential oils depends on seasonal variations. Food Chemistry, 108(3), 986-995.
• ​Petersen, D. (2015). Aromatherapy materia medica.  Essential oil monographs.  American College of Healthcare Sciences.
• Tisserand, R. & Young, R. (2014).  Essential Oil Safety, Second Edition.  Churchill, Livingstone, Elsevier.
• ​WebMD. (n.d.). Basil.  Retrieved in November, 2015. Retrieved from www.webmd.com
• This was a mega-analysis reviewing therapeutic uses of Ocimum sanctum Linn.  From:  Prakash, P., & Gupta, N. (2005). Therapeutic uses of Ocimum sanctum Linn (Tulsi) with a note on eugenol and its pharmacological actions: a short review. Indian journal of physiology and pharmacology, 49(2), 125.
• This was a mega-review of the several medicinal uses for Ocimum sanctum.  From:  Gupta, S. K., Prakash, J., & Srivastava, S. (2002). Validation of traditional claim of Tulsi, Ocimum sanctum Linn. as a medicinal plant. Indian journal of experimental biology, 40(7), 765-773.
• Sestili, P., Ismail, T., Calcabrini, C., Guescini, M., Catanzaro, E., Turrini, E., … & Fimognari, C. (2018). The potential effects of Ocimum basilicum on health: a review of pharmacological and toxicological studies. Expert opinion on drug metabolism & toxicology, 14(7), 679-692.
• A review of human studies on the health benefits of basil was summarized.  The herb maybe helpful for metabolic conditions such as diabetes, hypolipidemia, and high blood pressure, neural conditions such as improved cognition and reduced anxiety, improved immunity, as an anti-inflammatory, for oral health, and for skin conditions.  From:  Singletary, K. W. (2018). Basil: a brief summary of potential health benefits. Nutrition Today, 53(2), 92-97.

SAFETY

• High doses may be carcinogenic for those varieties containing high methyl chavicol (eugenole); Methyl chavicol is also a skin sensitizer; avoid basil oil during pregnancy (Lis-Balchin, 2006).
• Avoid essential oils with methyl chavicol with estrogen-dependent cancer or endometriosis (Petersen, 2015).
• Avoid with bleeding disorders; may increase bleeding and slow blood clotting.  Also not recommended with low blood pressure (WebMD, nd).
• Methyl chavicol may be carcinogenic in high doses, and the IFRA has a limit on amounts permitted in products sold.  Certain chemotypes of basil, ravensara, and tarragon can have over 80% methyl chavicol.  From: Clarke, S. (2009). Essential chemistry for aromatherapy. Elsevier Health Sciences.
• With ingestion of the whole herb, Some basil types are high in estrogole, which may have a mutagenic effect; avoid during pregnancy, lactation, and with small children, or for extended periods of time.  May interfere with certain medications.  May increase blood thinning, thus avoid with bleeding disorders (Natural Medicines).

ANTIOXIDANT

• ​With constituents of methylchavicol (47%), geranial (19%) and neral (15%),  Ocimum basilicum (basil) oil had radical scavenging and antioxidant activities and may be usable in treating oxidative damage and stress from certain inflammatory conditions.  From:  Kavoosi, G., & Amirghofran, Z. (2016). Chemical composition, radical scavenging and antioxidant capacity of Ocimum Basilicum essential oil. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 1-11.
• Basil, dill, and garden cress demonstrated antioxidant activity related to phenolic content.  From:  AYDEMIR, T., & Becerik, S. (2011). Phenolic content and antioxidant activity of different extracts from Ocimum basilicum, Apium graveolens and Lepidium sativum seeds. Journal of Food Biochemistry, 35(1), 62-79.
• Hyssop, basil, and wall germander may be considered a potential source of polyphenols with antioxidant and antimicrobial properties.  From:  Vlase, L., Benedec, D., Hanganu, D., Damian, G., Csillag, I., Sevastre, B., … & Tilea, I. (2014). Evaluation of antioxidant and antimicrobial activities and phenolic profile for Hyssopus officinalis, Ocimum basilicum and Teucrium chamaedrys. Molecules, 19(5), 5490-5507.
• Origanum vulgare, Melissa officinalis, Rosmarinus officinalis, Ocimum basilicum, Salvia officinalis, and Hyssopus officinalis were tested, and O. vulgare extracts exhibited the highest antioxidant capacity, and the highest rosmarinic acid and polyphenolic contents. L. monocytogenes, S. aureus and C. albicans were pathogens affected by all six extracts.  From:  Benedec, D., Hanganu, D., Oniga, I., Tiperciuc, B., Olah, N. K., Raita, O., … & Vlase, L. (2015). Assessment of rosmarinic acid content in six Lamiaceae species extracts and their antioxidant and antimicrobial potential. Pak. J. Pharm. Sci, 28(6), 2297-2303.
• Of 25 essential oils tested, thyme and clove showed the highest antioxidant activity; indicated were their thymol and eugenol components.  Cinnamon, basil, bergamot, eucalyptus, chamomile, bitter orange, and aloe vera were also effective.  From:  Wei, A., & Shibamoto, T. (2010). Antioxidant/lipoxygenase inhibitory activities and chemical compositions of selected essential oils. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 58(12), 7218-7225
• The essential oil of ocimum basilicum showed higher antioxidant capacity as a whole oil, than did the separate isolated constituents.  From:  Politeo, O., Jukic, M., & Milos, M. (2007). Chemical composition and antioxidant capacity of free volatile aglycones from basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) compared with its essential oil. Food Chemistry, 101(1), 379-385.
• The extracts of O. basilicum (basil) and O. vulgare (oregano) expressed very strong radical scavenging activity.  From:  Kaurinovic, B., Popovic, M., Vlaisavljevic, S., & Trivic, S. (2011). Antioxidant capacity of Ocimum basilicum L. and Origanum vulgare L. extracts. Molecules, 16(9), 7401-7414.
• Ocimum basilicum (basil) and Thymus vulgaris (thyme) demonstrated antioxidant powers with the following constituents showing the strongest activity: eugenol, thymol, carvacrol, and 4-allylphenol.  From:  Lee, S. J., Umano, K., Shibamoto, T., & Lee, K. G. (2005). Identification of volatile components in basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) and thyme leaves (Thymus vulgaris L.) and their antioxidant properties. Food Chemistry, 91(1), 131-137.
• Ocimum basilicum showed antioxidant activity and could be used in food storage, food supplement, or pharmaceutical applications.  From:  Gulcin, I., Elmastas, M., & Aboul-Enein, H. Y. (2007). Determination of antioxidant and radical scavenging activity of Basil (Ocimum basilicum L. Family Lamiaceae) assayed by different methodologies. Phytotherapy research, 21(4), 354-361.
• Rosmarinic acid was radical scavenging and there was the existence of a synergistic effect between α-tocopherol and rosmarinic acid in Ocimum basilicum.  From:  Jayasinghe, C., Gotoh, N., Aoki, T., & Wada, S. (2003). Phenolics composition and antioxidant activity of sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum L.). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 51(15), 4442-4449.
• Oxidative DNA damage could be lessoned with basil derivatives such as linalool, related to their antioxidative properties.  From:  Berić, T., Nikolić, B., Stanojević, J., Vuković-Gačić, B., & Knežević-Vukčević, J. (2008). Protective effect of basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) against oxidative DNA damage and mutagenesis. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 46(2), 724-732.
• Ocimum sanctum and its components of cirsilineol, cirsimaritin, isothymusin, isothymonin, apigenin, rosmarinic acid, and eugenol demonstrated varying degrees of antioxidant and anti-inflammatory qualities.  From:  Kelm, M. A., Nair, M. G., Strasburg, G. M., & DeWitt, D. L. (2000). Antioxidant and cyclooxygenase inhibitory phenolic compounds from Ocimum sanctum Linn. Phytomedicine, 7(1), 7-13.
• Ocimum basilicum (basil), Mentha spicata (spearmint), Pimpinella anisum (anise) and Fortunella margarita (kumquat) were studied for their antimicrobial, antioxidant and antiproliferative activities. Spearmint and sweet basil demonstrated cytotoxicity against common foodborne bacteria, and against the fungi Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Aspergillus niger. Antioxidant and radical scavenging activity was found in variable degrees and all the oils showed antiproliferative potential against a variety of human cancer cell lines with the most potent one being sweet basil against colon carcinoma.  From:  Fitsiou, E., Mitropoulou, G., Spyridopoulou, K., Tiptiri-Kourpeti, A., Vamvakias, M., Bardouki, H., … & Pappa, A. (2016). Phytochemical Profile and Evaluation of the Biological Activities of Essential Oils Derived from the Greek Aromatic Plant Species Ocimum basilicum, Mentha spicata, Pimpinella anisum and Fortunella margarita. Molecules, 21(8), 1069.
• Flavonoids of orientin and vicenin of Ocimum sanctum demonstrated free radical formation inhibition and free radical scavenging.  From:  Uma Devi, P., Ganasoundari, A., Vrinda, B., Srinivasan, K. K., & Unnikrishnan, M. K. (2000). Radiation protection by the ocimum flavonoids orientin and vicenin: mechanisms of action. Radiation Research, 154(4), 455-460.
• Ocimum sanctum demonstrated antioxidant and radioprotective properties.  From:  Subramanian, M., Chintalwar, G. J., & Chattopadhyay, S. (2013). Antioxidant and radioprotective properties of an Ocimum sanctum polysaccharide. Redox Report.
• The orientin and vicenin of Ocimum sanctum showed significant protection against radiation lethality and chromosomal aberrations in vivo.  From:  Vrinda, B., & Devi, P. U. (2001). Radiation protection of human lymphocyte chromosomes in vitro by orientin and vicenin. Mutation Research/Genetic Toxicology and Environmental Mutagenesis, 498(1), 39-46.
• Basil and wild marigold showed radical scavenging activity and could be used as a natural antioxidants to improve the oxidative stability of fatty foods during storage. They both also had antibacterial and antifungal activities and could be used against foodborne pathogens to preserve foods. Furthermore, they had cytotoxic activity for possible use in future antitumor drug design.  From:  Shirazi, M. T., Gholami, H., Kavoosi, G., Rowshan, V., & Tafsiry, A. (2014). Chemical composition, antioxidant, antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities of Tagetes minuta and Ocimum basilicum essential oils. Food science & nutrition, 2(2), 146-155.
• Ocimum sanctum extract protected against radiation induced lipid peroxidation.  From:  Devi, P. U., & Ganasoundari, A. (1999). Modulation of glutathione and antioxidant enzymes by Ocimum sanctum and its role in protection against radiation injury. Indian J Exp Biol, 37(3), 262-268.
• Five species of Ocimum demonstrated antioxidant capabilities.  From:  Salles Trevisan, M. T., Vasconcelos Silva, M. G., Pfundstein, B., Spiegelhalder, B., & Owen, R. W. (2006). Characterization of the volatile pattern and antioxidant capacity of essential oils from different species of the genus Ocimum. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 54(12), 4378-4382.
• Ocimum sanctum showed an antioxidant and neuroprotective effect that may be useful in treating cerebral reperfusion injury and cerebrovascular insufficiency states and improve memory loss.  From:  Yanpallewar, S. U., Rai, S., Kumar, M., & Acharya, S. B. (2004). Evaluation of antioxidant and neuroprotective effect of Ocimum sanctum on transient cerebral ischemia and long-term cerebral hypoperfusion. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 79(1), 155-164.
• The extracts from basil and bay possessed the highest antioxidant activity.  Other herbs tested included parsley, juniper, aniseed, fennel, cumin, cardamom, and ginger.  From:  Hinneburg, I., Dorman, H. D., & Hiltunen, R. (2006). Antioxidant activities of extracts from selected culinary herbs and spices. Food chemistry, 97(1), 122-129.From:  Anthony, K. P., Deolu‐Sobogun, S. A., & Saleh, M. A. (2012). Comprehensive assessment of antioxidant activity of essential oils. Journal of food science, 77(8), C839-C843.
• Cananga odorata, Boswellia thurifera, Cymbopogon citratus, Marjorana hortensis, Ocimum basilicum, Rosmarinus officinalis, Cinnamomum zeylanicum and Citrus limon exhibited considerable inhibitory effect against all the bacteria and fungi tested, and also demonstrated antioxidant activity comparable with α-tocopherol and butylated hydroxytoluene.  From:  Baratta, M. T., Dorman, H. J., Deans, S. G., Figueiredo, A. C., Barroso, J. G., & Ruberto, G. (1998). Antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of some commercial essential oils. Flavour and fragrance journal, 13(4), 235-244.
• Basil essential oil showed antioxidant, antibacterial effectiveness, and might be used in meat products.  From:  Sharafati Chaleshtori, R., Rokni, N., Rafieian-Kopaei, M., Drees, F., & Salehi, E. (2015). Antioxidant and antibacterial activity of Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) Essential oil in beef burger. Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology, 17(4), 817-826.

ANTI-CANCER / ANTI-GENOTOXIC

• Ocimum basilicum (basil), Mentha spicata (spearmint), Pimpinella anisum (anise) and Fortunella margarita (kumquat) were studied for their antimicrobial, antioxidant and antiproliferative activities. Spearmint and sweet basil demonstrated cytotoxicity against common foodborne bacteria, and against the fungi Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Aspergillus niger. Antioxidant and radical scavenging activity was found in variable degrees and all the oils showed antiproliferative potential against a variety of human cancer cell lines with the most potent one being sweet basil against colon carcinoma.  From:  Fitsiou, E., Mitropoulou, G., Spyridopoulou, K., Tiptiri-Kourpeti, A., Vamvakias, M., Bardouki, H., … & Pappa, A. (2016). Phytochemical Profile and Evaluation of the Biological Activities of Essential Oils Derived from the Greek Aromatic Plant Species Ocimum basilicum, Mentha spicata, Pimpinella anisum and Fortunella margarita. Molecules, 21(8), 1069.
• Basil and wild marigold showed radical scavenging activity and could be used as a natural antioxidants to improve the oxidative stability of fatty foods during storage. They both also had antibacterial and antifungal activities and could be used against foodborne pathogens to preserve foods. Furthermore, they had cytotoxic activity for possible use in future antitumor drug design.  From:  Shirazi, M. T., Gholami, H., Kavoosi, G., Rowshan, V., & Tafsiry, A. (2014). Chemical composition, antioxidant, antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities of Tagetes minuta and Ocimum basilicum essential oils. Food science & nutrition, 2(2), 146-155.
• Basil oil of the methyl cinnamate and linalool chemotype had potent cytotoxicity against the human cervical cancer cell line, human laryngeal epithelial carcinoma cell line and mouse embryonic fibroblasts.  From:  Kathirvel, P., & Ravi, S. (2012). Chemical composition of the essential oil from basil (Ocimum basilicum Linn.) and its in vitro cytotoxicity against HeLa and HEp-2 human cancer cell lines and NIH 3T3 mouse embryonic fibroblasts. Natural product research, 26(12), 1112-1118.
• The main constituents of Ocimum basilicum essential oil: rosmarinic and caffeic acid and eugenol, isoeugenol and linalool were tested against four human cancer cell lines and have been found more effective than the corresponding extract or oil, with the isoeugenol being the major constituent of O. Basilicum essential oil acting as a cancer cell inhibitor.  From:  Zarlaha, A., Kourkoumelis, N., Stanojkovic, T. P., & Kovala-Demertzi, D. (2014). Cytotoxic activity of essential oil and extracts of Ocimum basilicum against human carcinoma cells.  Molecular docking study of isoeugenol as a potent cox and lox inhibitor.  J. Nanomat. Biostruc, 9(3), 907-917.
• Ocimum basilicum, Ocimum basilicum var. purpurascens, and Ocimum sanctum were tested, and all extracts exhibited high ability for chelating metals, and were effective as DPPH scavengers.  From:  Grădinariu, V., Cioancă, O., Gille, E., Aprotosoaie, A. C., Hriţcu, L., & Hăncianu, M. (2013). The chemical profile of basil bio-varieties and its implication on the biological activity.
• Of Thailand medicinal plants test, sweet basil was the strongest one on human mouth epidermal carcinoma (KB) and murine leukemia (P388) cell lines.  From:  Manosroi, J., Dhumtanom, P., & Manosroi, A. (2006). Anti-proliferative activity of essential oil extracted from Thai medicinal plants on KB and P388 cell lines. Cancer letters, 235(1), 114-120.
• Ocimum sanctum leaf extract possessed a protective effect against induced genetic damage.  From:  Babu, K., & Maheswari, K. U. (2006). In vivo studies on the effect of Ocimum sanctum L. leaf extract in modifying the genotoxicity induced by chromium and mercury in Allium root meristems. Journal of Environmental Biology, 27(1), 93.

ANTIMICROBIAL / ANTIBACTERIAL / ANTIFUNGAL / ANTIVIRAL

• The use of plant essential oils against antibiotic resistant microbes is discussed. Key essential oils include basil, cilantro, coriander, cinnamon, clove, curry, garlic, helichrysum, lavender, lemongrass, oregano, peppermint, and tea tree. From: Yang, S. K., Low, L. Y., Yap, P. S. X., Yusoff, K., Mai, C. W., Lai, K. S., & Lim, S. H. E. (2018). Plant-Derived Antimicrobials: Insights into Mitigation of Antimicrobial Resistance. Records of Natural Products, 12(4).
• Fourteen Ocimum species were tested and exhibited broad spectrum antibacterial properties against 5 Gram-positive and 7 Gram-negative bacteria, and antifungal properties against 10 fungi. The bacterial species included: Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus mutans, and Enterococcus faecalis.  The fungal species included: Epidermophyton floccosum, Microsporum gypseum, and Sporothrix schenckii.  From:  Rao, B. R., Kotharia, S. K., Rajput, D. K., Patel, R. P., & Darokar, M. P. (2011). Chemical and biological diversity in fourteen selections of four Ocimum species. Natural product communications, 6(11), 1705-1710.
• Origanum vulgare, Melissa officinalis, Rosmarinus officinalis, Ocimum basilicum, Salvia officinalis, and Hyssopus officinalis were tested, and O. vulgare extracts exhibited the highest antioxidant capacity, and the highest rosmarinic acid and polyphenolic contents. L. monocytogenes, S. aureus and C. albicans were pathogens affected by all six extracts.  From:  Benedec, D., Hanganu, D., Oniga, I., Tiperciuc, B., Olah, N. K., Raita, O., … & Vlase, L. (2015). Assessment of rosmarinic acid content in six Lamiaceae species extracts and their antioxidant and antimicrobial potential. Pak. J. Pharm. Sci, 28(6), 2297-2303.
• Essential oils from Columbia of the Labiatae family showed the most anti-herpetic activity, with Lepechinia salvifolia (pitchersage), Hyptis mutabilis (bushmint), Lepechinia vulcanicola (pitchersage), Mintostachys mollis (mint) and Ocimum campechianum (basil) inhibiting activity during early stages of the herpes infection.  From:  Brand, Y. M., Roa-Linares, V. C., Betancur-Galvis, L. A., Durán-García, D. C., & Stashenko, E. (2016). Antiviral activity of Colombian Labiatae and Verbenaceae family essential oils and monoterpenes on Human Herpes viruses. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 28(2), 130-137.
• In an 8 day study with 45 high school aged children, a tulsi mouthwash reduced salivary Streptocococcus mutans as much as common mouthwash brands.  From:  Agarwal, P., & Nagesh, L. (2011). Comparative evaluation of efficacy of 0.2% Chlorhexidine, Listerine and Tulsi extract mouth rinses on salivary Streptococcus mutans count of high school children—RCT. Contemporary clinical trials, 32(6), 802-808.
• The following essential oils were tested against a variety of microbes in a variety of environments:  cinnamon (Cinnamon zeylanicum), clove (Syzygium aromaticum), basil (Ocimum basillicum), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), dill (Anethum graveolens), and ginger (Zingiber officinalis).   From:  Lopez, P., Sanchez, C., Batlle, R., & Nerin, C. (2005). Solid-and vapor-phase antimicrobial activities of six essential oils: susceptibility of selected foodborne bacterial and fungal strains. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 53(17), 6939-6946.
• Essential oils from anise, angelica, basil, carrot, celery, cardamom, coriander, dill weed, fennel, oregano, parsley, and rosemary were evaluated for antimicrobial activity.  Oregano, basil, and coriander showed the highest activity.  From:  Elgayyar, M., Draughon, F. A., Golden, D. A., & Mount, J. R. (2001). Antimicrobial activity of essential oils from plants against selected pathogenic and saprophytic microorganisms. Journal of Food Protection®, 64(7), 1019-1024.
• Ocimum basilicum (basil), Mentha spicata (spearmint), Pimpinella anisum (anise) and Fortunella margarita (kumquat) were studied for their antimicrobial, antioxidant and antiproliferative activities. Spearmint and sweet basil demonstrated cytotoxicity against common foodborne bacteria, and against the fungi Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Aspergillus niger. Antioxidant and radical scavenging activity was found in variable degrees and all the oils showed antiproliferative potential against a variety of human cancer cell lines with the most potent one being sweet basil against colon carcinoma.  From:  Fitsiou, E., Mitropoulou, G., Spyridopoulou, K., Tiptiri-Kourpeti, A., Vamvakias, M., Bardouki, H., … & Pappa, A. (2016). Phytochemical Profile and Evaluation of the Biological Activities of Essential Oils Derived from the Greek Aromatic Plant Species Ocimum basilicum, Mentha spicata, Pimpinella anisum and Fortunella margarita. Molecules, 21(8), 1069.
• Oregano, basil, and thyme exhibited antioxidant, antibacterial, and antifungal activity.  Oregano was effective against multiresistant strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli.  From:  Bozin, B., Mimica-Dukic, N., Simin, N., & Anackov, G. (2006). Characterization of the volatile composition of essential oils of some Lamiaceae spices and the antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of the entire oils. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 54(5), 1822-1828.
• Basil and wild marigold showed radical scavenging activity and could be used as a natural antioxidants to improve the oxidative stability of fatty foods during storage. They both also had antibacterial and antifungal activities and could be used against foodborne pathogens to preserve foods. Furthermore, they had cytotoxic activity for possible use in future antitumor drug design.  From:  Shirazi, M. T., Gholami, H., Kavoosi, G., Rowshan, V., & Tafsiry, A. (2014). Chemical composition, antioxidant, antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities of Tagetes minuta and Ocimum basilicum essential oils. Food science & nutrition, 2(2), 146-155.
• Cananga odorata, Boswellia thurifera, Cymbopogon citratus, Marjorana hortensis, Ocimum basilicum, Rosmarinus officinalis, Cinnamomum zeylanicum and Citrus limon exhibited considerable inhibitory effect against all the bacteria and fungi tested, and also demonstrated antioxidant activity comparable with α-tocopherol and butylated hydroxytoluene.  From:  Baratta, M. T., Dorman, H. J., Deans, S. G., Figueiredo, A. C., Barroso, J. G., & Ruberto, G. (1998). Antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of some commercial essential oils. Flavour and fragrance journal, 13(4), 235-244.
• Oregano, coriander, and basil essential oil showed the greatest inhibition to the other bacteria and fungi tested. Anise oil was not particularly inhibitory to bacteria but was highly inhibitory to molds. From:  Elgayyar, M., Draughon, F. A., Golden, D. A., & Mount, J. R. (2001). Antimicrobial activity of essential oils from plants against selected pathogenic and saprophytic microorganisms. Journal of Food Protection®, 64(7), 1019-1024.
• Essential oils of cinnamon, peppermint, basil, origanum, clove, and thyme caused a total inhibition of fungal development on maize kernels without a phytotoxic effect.  From:  Montes-Belmont, R., & Carvajal, M. (1998). Control of Aspergillus flavus in maize with plant essential oils and their components. Journal of Food Protection®, 61(5), 616-619.
• Basil, lemon balm, marjoram, nutmeg, oregano, rosemary, sage, and thyme showed varying degrees of antimicrobial activity on foodborne pathogens.  From:  Gutierrez, J., Rodriguez, G., Barry-Ryan, C., & Bourke, P. (2008). Efficacy of plant essential oils against foodborne pathogens and spoilage bacteria associated with ready-to-eat vegetables: antimicrobial and sensory screening. Journal of Food Protection®, 71(9), 1846-1854.
• ​Cinnamomum zeylanicum and Ocimum basilicum essential oils decreased the growth rate of S. aureus bacteria significantly.  From:  Azizkhani, M., & Parsaeimehr, M. (2015). Effects of Cinnamomum zeylanicum and Ocimum basilicum essential oils on the growth of Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 29213 and gene expression of enterotoxins A, C and E. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 27(6), 506-513.
• In a study of 30 different vaginal isolated strains of C. albicans to twelve essential oils, compared to the three of the mainly used drugs (clotrimazole, fluconazole, itraconazole), mint, basil, lavender, tea tree oil, winter savory and oregano essential oils inhibited both the growth and the activity of C. albicans more efficiently than clotrimazole.  From:  Bona, E., Cantamessa, S., Pavan, M., Novello, G., Massa, N., Rocchetti, A., … & Gamalero, E. (2016). Sensitivity of Candida albicans to essential oils: are they an alternative to antifungal agents?. Journal of Applied Microbiology.
• O. basilicum oil and its major constituents including geraniol and linalool, provide a potential source as a natural antifungal agent.  From:  Cardoso, N. N., Alviano, C. S., Blank, A. F., Romanos, M. T. V., Fonseca, B. B., Rozental, S., … & Alviano, D. S. (2016). Synergism Effect of the Essential Oil from Ocimum basilicum var. Maria Bonita and Its Major Components with Fluconazole and Its Influence on Ergosterol Biosynthesis. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2016.
• Basil essential oil showed antioxidant, antibacterial effectiveness, and might be used in meat products.  From:  Sharafati Chaleshtori, R., Rokni, N., Rafieian-Kopaei, M., Drees, F., & Salehi, E. (2015). Antioxidant and antibacterial activity of Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) Essential oil in beef burger. Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology, 17(4), 817-826.
• Parsley and basil essential oil demonstrated antibacterial activity against Vibrio strains found in seafood.  From:  Snoussi, M., Dehmani, A., Noumi, E., Flamini, G., & Papetti, A. (2016). Chemical composition and antibiofilm activity of Petroselinum crispum and Ocimum basilicum essential oils against Vibrio spp. strains. Microbial pathogenesis, 90, 13-21.
• Melissa, grapefruit mint, peppermint, basil, perilla, prunella, and winter savory showed potent anti-HIV-1 activity. From:  Yamasaki, K., Nakano, M., Kawahata, T., MORI, H., OTAKE, T., UEDA, N., … & MURATA, H. (1998). Anti-HIV-1 activity of herbs in Labiatae. Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 21(8), 829-833.
• Basil, clove, garlic, horseradish, marjoram, oregano, rosemary, and thyme exhibited antibacterial activities on a foodborne pathogen, Vibrio parahaemolyticus.  From:  Yano, Y., Satomi, M., & Oikawa, H. (2006). Antimicrobial effect of spices and herbs on Vibrio parahaemolyticus. International journal of food microbiology, 111(1), 6-11.
• Cloves, thyme, oregano, allspice, basil, rosemary, and marjoram showed antimicrobial effects on Shigella.  From:  Bagamboula, C. F., Uyttendaele, M., & Debevere, J. (2003). Antimicrobial effect of spices and herbs on Shigella sonnei and Shigella flexneri. Journal of Food Protection®, 66(4), 668-673.
• Basil essential oil on the surface of italian sausage can be used as an antifungal compound, making possible its use as substitute for chemical additives.  From:  Saggiorato, A. G., Gaio, I., Treichel, H., de Oliveira, D., Cichoski, A. J., & Cansian, R. L. (2012). Antifungal activity of basil essential oil (Ocimum basilicum L.): evaluation in vitro and on an Italian-type sausage surface. Food and bioprocess technology, 5(1), 378-384.
• Basil showed antifungal activities and could be a potential treatment for mycotic infections and act as a pharmaceutical preservative against A. flavus growth and aflatoxin B1 production.  From:  Deabes, M., El-Kassem, L. A., & Khalil, M. (2015). Chemical Composition and Antifungal Activity of Ocimum basilicum L. Essential Oil. OA Maced J Med Sci. 2015 Sep 15; 3 (3): 374-379.
• Thymus vulgaris (thyme), Ocimum gratissimum (basil) and Eugenia caryophyllata (clove) were particularly antibacterial with a large spectra action, and Melaleuca viridiflora (cajuput) had also a high inhibitory effect especially on Gram positive bacteria.  From:  Ramanoelina, A. R., Terrom, G. P., Bianchini, J. P., & Coulanges, P. (1986). [Antibacterial action of essential oils extracted from Madagascar plants]. Archives de l’Institut Pasteur de Madagascar, 53(1), 217-226.
• Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) essential oil showed activity against eight important postharvest deteriorating fungi with the following constituents being significant: 1,8-cineole, linalool, camphor, α-terpineol, methyl chavicol, and eugenol.  From:  Barcelos, R. C., Jham, G. N., Dhingra, O. D., Mendonca, F. A., & Valente, V. M. (2013). Identification and Quantification of the Major Fungitoxic Components of the Brazilian Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) Essential Oil. Journal of Food Research, 2(5), 124.
• Ocimum basilicum’s camphor and 1,8-cineole showed the lowest cyto-toxicities and the best antiviral activities in the virucidal assay.  From:  Kubiça, T. F., Alves, S. H., Weiblen, R., & Lovato, L. T. (2014). In vitro inhibition of the bovine viral diarrhoea virus by the essential oil of Ocimum basilicum (basil) and monoterpenes. Brazilian Journal of Microbiology, 45(1), 209-214.
• A total of 146 organisms were tested against O. basilicum, and the results showed a lack of antifungal activities, but anticandidal and antibacterial effects.  From:  Adigüzel, A., Güllüce, M., ŞENGÜL, M., Öğütcü, H., ŞAHİN, F., & Karaman, I. (2005). Antimicrobial effects of Ocimum basilicum (Labiatae) extract. Turkish Journal of Biology, 29(3), 155-160.
• O. basilicum demonstrated antifungal activity against Aspergillus flavus fungal growth.  From:  El-Soud, N. H. A., Deabes, M., El-Kassem, L. A., & Khalil, M. (2015). Chemical Composition and Antifungal Activity of Ocimum basilicum L. Essential Oil. Open Access Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences, 3(3), 374.  L
• O. basilicum essential oil completely inhibited the growth of 22 species of fungi.  This included the mycotoxin-producing strains of Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus. As an insect repellent, it worked against the insect Allacophora foveicollis.  From:  Dube, S., Upadhyay, P. D., & Tripathi, S. C. (1989). Antifungal, physicochemical, and insect-repelling activity of the essential oil of Ocimum basilicum. Canadian journal of botany, 67(7), 2085-2087.
• Thirteen essential oils from African plants were assessed.  Three oils: Ocimum gratissimum, Thymus vulgaris and Ocimum basilicum, showed strong antifungal activity.  From:  Amvam Zollo, P. H., Biyiti, L., Tchoumbougnang, F., Menut, C., Lamaty, G., & Bouchet, P. H. (1998). Aromatic plants of tropical Central Africa, Part XXXII. Chemical composition and antifungal activity of thirteen essential oils from aromatic plants of Cameroon. Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 13(2), 107-114.
• 12 essential oils were tested against Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus, A. ochraceus and Fusarium moniliforme. The oils of thyme, cinnamon, marigold, spearmint, basil, and quyssum completely inhibit all the test fungi. Caraway, anise, chamomile and hazanbul showed antifungal activity against certain species.  From:  Soliman, K. M., & Badeaa, R. I. (2002). Effect of oil extracted from some medicinal plants on different mycotoxigenic fungi. Food and chemical toxicology, 40(11), 1669-1675.
• Cymbopogon citratus (lemongrass), Ocimum basilicum (basil), and Ocimum gratissimum (basil) were most effective in vitro, completely inhibiting the growth of F. verticillioides in corn.  From:  Fandohan, P., Gbenou, J. D., Gnonlonfin, B., Hell, K., Marasas, W. F., & Wingfield, M. J. (2004). Effect of essential oils on the growth of Fusarium verticillioides and fumonisin contamination in corn. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 52(22), 6824-6829.
• Basil and coriander essential oils were the most effective, and complete inhibition of Aspergillus flavus fungal growth was observed at 1000 ppm by basil, coriander, caraway and rosemary.  From:  Deabes, M., El-Soud, N., & El-Kassem, L. (2011). In vitro Inhibition of growth and aflatoxin B1 production of Aspergillus flavus strain (ATCC 16872) by various medicinal plant essential oils. Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences, 4(4), 345-350.
• With eugenol as the key constituent, O. basilicum and O. gratissimum essential oils from different locations showed chemical variation, antifungal activity, free radical scavenging capacity and anti-mycotoxicogenic property.  From:  Dambolena, J. S., Zunino, M. P., López, A. G., Rubinstein, H. R., Zygadlo, J. A., Mwangi, J. W., … & Kariuki, S. T. (2010). Essential oils composition of Ocimum basilicum L. and Ocimum gratissimum L. from Kenya and their inhibitory effects on growth and fumonisin production by Fusarium verticillioides. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 11(2), 410-414.
• Nine plant spice essential oils were tested on various microorganisms (Salmonella typhimurium, Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Yersinia enterocolitica, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida rugosa, Rhizopus oryzae and Aspergillus niger and showed antimicrobial activity and may be used to combat pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms, and improve shelf-life of foods.  They included: savory, laurel, oregano, basil, cumin, sea fennel, myrtle,and mint.  From:  Özcan, M., & Erkmen, O. (2001). Antimicrobial activity of the essential oils of Turkish plant spices. European Food Research and Technology, 212(6), 658-660.
• Gram-negative bacteria including Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and gram-positive bacteria including Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus,and showed the presence of bacteriostatic effects of Ocimum basilicum essential oil.  From:  Moghaddam, A. M. D., Shayegh, J., Mikaili, P., & Sharaf, J. D. (2011). Antimicrobial activity of essential oil extract of Ocimum basilicum L. leaves on a variety of pathogenic bacteria. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research, 5(15), 3453-3456.
• O. basilicum extract was tested against Fusarium oxysporum, F. proliferatum, F. subglutinans, and F. verticillioides and significantly inhibited the growth of all species of fungi at the concentration of 1.50%.  From:  Kocić-Tanackov, S., Dimić, G., Lević, J., Tanackov, I., & Tuco, D. (2011). Antifungal activities of basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) extract on Fusarium species. African Journal of Biotechnology, 10(50), 10188-10195.
• Evaluation of antimicrobial activity of essential oils and the linalool constituent were measured against bacteria: Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Pasteurella multocida and pathogenic fungi Aspergillus niger, Mucor mucedo, Fusarium solani, Botryodiplodia theobromae, Rhizopus solani, and all the tested microorganisms were affected. Both antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of O. basilicum  varied significantly with seasonal changes.  From:  Hussain, A. I., Anwar, F., Sherazi, S. T. H., & Przybylski, R. (2008). Chemical composition, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of basil (Ocimum basilicum) essential oils depends on seasonal variations. Food Chemistry, 108(3), 986-995.
• Seven varieties of basil were tested against common pathogens: Enterococcus faecalis, Enterococus faecium, Escherichia coli 0157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes, Listeria ivanovii, Proteus vulgaris, Staphylococcus aureus, and Staphylococcus epidermis.  From:  Carović-Stanko, K., Orlić, S., Politeo, O., Strikić, F., Kolak, I., Milos, M., & Satovic, Z. (2010). Composition and antibacterial activities of essential oils of seven Ocimum taxa. Food Chemistry, 119(1), 196-201.
• Mentha piperita (peppermint), M. spicata (spearmint), Thymus vulgaris (thyme), Origanum vulgare (oregano), O. applii (oregano), Aloysia triphylla (lemon verbena), Ocimum gratissimum (basil), and O. basilicum (basil) were studied and demonstrated varying degrees of antimicrobial activity.  From:  Sartoratto, A., Machado, A. L. M., Delarmelina, C., Figueira, G. M., Duarte, M. C. T., & Rehder, V. L. G. (2004). Composition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils from aromatic plants used in Brazil. Brazilian Journal of Microbiology, 35(4), 275-280.
• Ocimum basilicum essential oils and their principal constituents were found to exhibit antimicrobial activity against a wide range of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, yeast, and mold.  From:  Suppakul, P., Miltz, J., Sonneveld, K., & Bigger, S. W. (2003). Antimicrobial properties of basil and its possible application in food packaging. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 51(11), 3197-3207.
• Ocimum basilicum was antibacterial against multidrug resistant clinical isolates of Staphylococcus, Enterococcus and Pseudomonas.  From:  Opalchenova, G., & Obreshkova, D. (2003). Comparative studies on the activity of basil—an essential oil from Ocimum basilicum L.—against multidrug resistant clinical isolates of the genera Staphylococcus, Enterococcus and Pseudomonas by using different test methods. Journal of Microbiological methods, 54(1), 105-110.
• The rosmarinic acid component of basil demonstrated antimicrobial activity.  From:  Bais, H. P., Walker, T. S., Schweizer, H. P., & Vivanco, J. M. (2002). Root specific elicitation and antimicrobial activity of rosmarinic acid in hairy root cultures of Ocimum basilicum. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, 40(11), 983-995.
• Cajuput and basil oils were combined to demonstrate topical antibacterial application.  From:  Jedlickova, Z., Mottl, O., & Serý, V. (1991). Antibacterial properties of the Vietnamese cajeput oil and ocimum oil in combination with antibacterial agents. Journal of hygiene, epidemiology, microbiology, and immunology, 36(3), 303-309.
• Citrus aurantium (bergamot), C. limon (lemon), Lavandula angustifolia (lavender), Matricaria chamomilla (chamomile), Mentha piperita (peppermint), M. spicata (spearmint), Ocimum basilicum (basil), Origanum vulgare (oregano), Thymus vulgaris (thyme), and Salvia officinalis (sage) along with their constituents were tested against human pathogenic bacteria.  The highest and broadest activity was shown by O. vulgare oil and carvacrol had the highest antibacterial activity among the tested constituents.  Other significant constituents included: camphor, 1,8-cineole, linalool, linalyl acetate, limonene, menthol, a-pinene, b-pinene, and thymol.  From:  Soković, M., Glamočlija, J., Marin, P. D., Brkić, D., & van Griensven, L. J. (2010). Antibacterial effects of the essential oils of commonly consumed medicinal herbs using an in vitro model. Molecules, 15(11), 7532-7546.
• Multiple species of eucalyptus, as well as lemongrass, basil, and nutmeg from the Congo demonstrated antibacterial activity.  From:  Cimanga, K., Kambu, K., Tona, L., Apers, S., De Bruyne, T., Hermans, N., … & Vlietinck, A. J. (2002). Correlation between chemical composition and antibacterial activity of essential oils of some aromatic medicinal plants growing in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 79(2), 213-220.
• The study demonstrated Ocimum sanctum EO and eugenol as a plant based safe preservative against fungal spoilage of food.  From:  Kumar, A., Shukla, R., Singh, P., & Dubey, N. K. (2010). Chemical composition, antifungal and antiaflatoxigenic activities of Ocimum sanctum L. essential oil and its safety assessment as plant based antimicrobial. Food and chemical toxicology, 48(2), 539-543.
• Broad-spectrum antimicrobial activities were observed from cinnamon, geranium, cumin, thyme, basil and lemongrass essential oils against the following tobacco plant pathogens:  Alternaria alternata, Colletotrichum destructivum and Phytophthora parasiticasuperior.  From:  Lu, M., Han, Z., Xu, Y., & Yao, L. (2013). Effects of essential oils from Chinese indigenous aromatic plants on mycelial growth and morphogenesis of three phytopathogens. Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 28(2), 84-92.
• Tested essential oils showed antifungal activity against tested fungi.  From:  Gucwa, K., Milewski, S., Dymerski, T., & Szweda, P. (2018). Investigation of the Antifungal Activity and Mode of Action of Thymus vulgaris, Citrus limonum, Pelargonium graveolens, Cinnamomum cassia, Ocimum basilicum, and Eugenia caryophyllus Essential Oils. Molecules, 23(5), 1116.
• Cinnamon, lemon, basil, thyme, geranium, and clove showed high antifungal activity against Candida ssp. in vitro.  From:  Szweda, P., Gucwa, K., Kurzyk, E., Romanowska, E., Dzierżanowska-Fangrat, K., Jurek, A. Z., … & Milewski, S. (2015). Essential oils, silver nanoparticles and propolis as alternative agents against fluconazole resistant Candida albicans, Candida glabrata and Candida krusei clinical isolates. Indian journal of microbiology, 55(2), 175-183.
• Hyssop, basil and wall germander may be considered a potential source of polyphenols with antioxidant and antimicrobial properties.  From:  Vlase, L., Benedec, D., Hanganu, D., Damian, G., Csillag, I., Sevastre, B., … & Tilea, I. (2014). Evaluation of antioxidant and antimicrobial activities and phenolic profile for Hyssopus officinalis, Ocimum basilicum and Teucrium chamaedrys. Molecules, 19(5), 5490-5507.
• Against the oral bacteria: Streptococcus mutans, Porphyromonas gingivalis, and Lactobacillus rhamnosus, the 13 most effective essential oils were: myrrh, ginger, basil, carrot seed, tea tree, patchouli, ylang ylang, cypress, lemongrass, cinnamon, peppermint, lavender, and eucalyptus. From: Park, C., & Yoon, H. (2018). Antimicrobial Activity of Essential Oil against Oral Strain. International Journal of Clinical Preventive Dentistry, 14(4), 216-221.
• Ethenol extracts from Syzygium aromaticum, Allium sativum, Curcuma longa, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Ocimum sanctum, Piper nigrum, Azadirachta indica, Centella asiatica, and Zingiber officinale showed antimicrobial activity against most tested oral microbes. From: Gauniyal, P., & Teotia, U. V. S. (2014). Phytochemical screening and antimicrobial activity of some medicinal plants against oral flora. Asian Pac J Health Sci, 1(3), 255-63.
• Thirty essential oils were tested against pathogenic plant bacteria. Ceylon cinnamon (leaf and bark), oregano, clove bud, palmarosa, basil, peppermint, rosemary, blue gum, camphor, lemongrass, aniseed, ylang ylang, silver fir, lemon, dwarf mountain pine, bay laurel, scots pine, black cumin, Indian frankincense, bergamot orange, common juniper, bitter orange, and neem showed varying degrees of reaction.  From: Popović, T., Milićević, Z., Oro, V., Kostić, I., Radović, V., Jelušić, A., & Krnjajić, S. (2018). A preliminary study of antibacterial activity of thirty essential oils against several important plant pathogenic bacteria. Pesticidi i fitomedicina, 33(3-4), 185-195.

PRESERVATIVE

• Ocimum basilicum (basil), Mentha spicata (spearmint), Pimpinella anisum (anise) and Fortunella margarita (kumquat) were studied for their antimicrobial, antioxidant and antiproliferative activities. Spearmint and sweet basil demonstrated cytotoxicity against common foodborne bacteria, and against the fungi Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Aspergillus niger. Antioxidant and radical scavenging activity was found in variable degrees and all the oils showed antiproliferative potential against a variety of human cancer cell lines with the most potent one being sweet basil against colon carcinoma.  From:  Fitsiou, E., Mitropoulou, G., Spyridopoulou, K., Tiptiri-Kourpeti, A., Vamvakias, M., Bardouki, H., … & Pappa, A. (2016). Phytochemical Profile and Evaluation of the Biological Activities of Essential Oils Derived from the Greek Aromatic Plant Species Ocimum basilicum, Mentha spicata, Pimpinella anisum and Fortunella margarita. Molecules, 21(8), 1069.
• Basil and wild marigold showed radical scavenging activity and could be used as a natural antioxidants to improve the oxidative stability of fatty foods during storage. They both also had antibacterial and antifungal activities and could be used against foodborne pathogens to preserve foods. Furthermore, they had cytotoxic activity for possible use in future antitumor drug design.  From:  Shirazi, M. T., Gholami, H., Kavoosi, G., Rowshan, V., & Tafsiry, A. (2014). Chemical composition, antioxidant, antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities of Tagetes minuta and Ocimum basilicum essential oils. Food science & nutrition, 2(2), 146-155.
• Basil, lemon balm, marjoram, nutmeg, oregano, rosemary, sage, and thyme showed varying degrees of antimicrobial activity on foodborne pathogens.  From:  Gutierrez, J., Rodriguez, G., Barry-Ryan, C., & Bourke, P. (2008). Efficacy of plant essential oils against foodborne pathogens and spoilage bacteria associated with ready-to-eat vegetables: antimicrobial and sensory screening. Journal of Food Protection®, 71(9), 1846-1854.
• Basil essential oil showed antioxidant, antibacterial effectiveness, and might be used in meat products.  From:  Sharafati Chaleshtori, R., Rokni, N., Rafieian-Kopaei, M., Drees, F., & Salehi, E. (2015). Antioxidant and antibacterial activity of Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) Essential oil in beef burger. Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology, 17(4), 817-826.
• Parsley and basil essential oil demonstrated antibacterial activity against Vibrio strains found in seafood.  From:  Snoussi, M., Dehmani, A., Noumi, E., Flamini, G., & Papetti, A. (2016). Chemical composition and antibiofilm activity of Petroselinum crispum and Ocimum basilicum essential oils against Vibrio spp. strains. Microbial pathogenesis, 90, 13-21.
• Basil, clove, garlic, horseradish, marjoram, oregano, rosemary, and thyme exhibited antibacterial activities on a foodborne pathogen, Vibrio parahaemolyticus.  From:  Yano, Y., Satomi, M., & Oikawa, H. (2006). Antimicrobial effect of spices and herbs on Vibrio parahaemolyticus. International journal of food microbiology, 111(1), 6-11.
• Basil essential oil on the surface of italian sausage can be used as an antifungal compound, making possible its use as substitute for chemical additives.  From:  Saggiorato, A. G., Gaio, I., Treichel, H., de Oliveira, D., Cichoski, A. J., & Cansian, R. L. (2012). Antifungal activity of basil essential oil (Ocimum basilicum L.): evaluation in vitro and on an Italian-type sausage surface. Food and bioprocess technology, 5(1), 378-384.
• Essential oils of cilantro, coriander, cinnamon, oregano, rosemary, sage, clove, thyme, lemongrass, turmeric, mint, basil, and constituents of linalool, cinnamaldehyde, carvacrol, thymol, terpinene, cymene, alpha/beta pinene, bornyl acetate, camphor, 1,8-cineole, alpha terpeneol, geraniol, perrilaldehyde, and eugenol have demonstrated food preserving potential.  From:  Burt, S. (2004). Essential oils: their antibacterial properties and potential applications in foods—a review. International journal of food microbiology, 94(3), 223-253.
• Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) essential oil showed activity against eight important postharvest deteriorating fungi with the following constituents being significant: 1,8-cineole, linalool, camphor, α-terpineol, methyl chavicol, and eugenol.  From:  Barcelos, R. C., Jham, G. N., Dhingra, O. D., Mendonca, F. A., & Valente, V. M. (2013). Identification and Quantification of the Major Fungitoxic Components of the Brazilian Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) Essential Oil. Journal of Food Research, 2(5), 124.
• Cymbopogon citratus (lemongrass), Ocimum basilicum (basil), and Ocimum gratissimum (basil) were most effective in vitro, completely inhibiting the growth of F. verticillioides in corn.  From:  Fandohan, P., Gbenou, J. D., Gnonlonfin, B., Hell, K., Marasas, W. F., & Wingfield, M. J. (2004). Effect of essential oils on the growth of Fusarium verticillioides and fumonisin contamination in corn. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 52(22), 6824-6829.
• Nine plant spice essential oils were tested on various microorganisms (Salmonella typhimurium, Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Yersinia enterocolitica, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida rugosa, Rhizopus oryzae and Aspergillus niger and showed antimicrobial activity and may be used to combat pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms, and improve shelf-life of foods.  They included: savory, laurel, oregano, basil, cumin, sea fennel, myrtle,and mint.  From:  Özcan, M., & Erkmen, O. (2001). Antimicrobial activity of the essential oils of Turkish plant spices. European Food Research and Technology, 212(6), 658-660.
• The study demonstrated Ocimum sanctum EO and eugenol as a plant based safe preservative against fungal spoilage of food.  From:  Kumar, A., Shukla, R., Singh, P., & Dubey, N. K. (2010). Chemical composition, antifungal and antiaflatoxigenic activities of Ocimum sanctum L. essential oil and its safety assessment as plant based antimicrobial. Food and chemical toxicology, 48(2), 539-543.

INSECTICIDAL / LARVICIDAL / REPELLENT

• Anise (Pimpinella anisum), eucalyptus (Eucalyptus camaldulensis), mint (Mentha piperita) basil (Ocimum basilicum) and laurel (Laurus nobilis) were tested and demonstrated repellency against Culex pipiens, with the eucalyptus, basil and anise being the most active.  From:  Erler, F., Ulug, I., & Yalcinkaya, B. (2006). Repellent activity of five essential oils against Culex pipiens. Fitoterapia, 77(7), 491-494.
• Ocimum basilicum was larvicidal against the mosquito species Culex tritaeniorhynchus, Aedes albopictus and Anopheles subpictus.  From:  Govindarajan, M., Sivakumar, R., Rajeswary, M., & Yogalakshmi, K. (2013). Chemical composition and larvicidal activity of essential oil from Ocimum basilicum (L.) against Culex tritaeniorhynchus, Aedes albopictus and Anopheles subpictus (Diptera: Culicidae). Experimental parasitology, 134(1), 7-11.
• O. basilicum essential oil completely inhibited the growth of 22 species of fungi.  This included the mycotoxin-producing strains of Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus. As an insect repellent, it worked against the insect Allacophora foveicollis.  From:  Dube, S., Upadhyay, P. D., & Tripathi, S. C. (1989). Antifungal, physicochemical, and insect-repelling activity of the essential oil of Ocimum basilicum. Canadian journal of botany, 67(7), 2085-2087.
• Ocimum basilicum and O. gratissimum was insecticidal against the beetle Callosobruchus maculatus.  From:  Keita, S. M., Vincent, C., Schmit, J. P., Arnason, J. T., & Bélanger, A. (2001). Efficacy of essential oil of Ocimum basilicum L. and O. gratissimum L. applied as an insecticidal fumigant and powder to control Callosobruchus maculatus (Fab.)[Coleoptera: Bruchidae]. Journal of Stored Products Research, 37(4), 339-349.
• Curcuma longa (tumeric), Citrus hystrix (lime), Cymbopogon winterianus (citronella), and Ocimum americanum (basil) were assessed for their repellency against three mosquito vectors, Aedes aegypti, Anopheles dirus and Culex quinquefasciatus. Turmeric, citronella grass and hairy basil formulated with vanillin demonstrated mosquito repellency and could be used in place of deet.  From:  Tawatsin, A., Wratten, S. D., Scott, R. R., Thavara, U., & Techadamrongsin, Y. (2001). Repellency of volatile oils from plants against three mosquito vectors. Journal of Vector Ecology, 26, 76-82.
• Apium graveolens (celery), Citrus sinensis (orange), Eucalyptus globulus (eucalyptus), Juniperus oxycedrus (juniper), Laurus nobilis (bay), Lavandula hybrida (lavender) , Mentha microphylla (mint), Mentha viridis (spearmint), Ocimum basilicum (basil), Origanum vulgare (oregano), Pistacia terebinthus (turpentine tree), Rosmarinus officinalis (rosemary), and Thuja orientalis (thuja) were effective insect repellents against Acanthoscelides obtectus.  From:  Papachristos, D. P., & Stamopoulos, D. C. (2002). Repellent, toxic and reproduction inhibitory effects of essential oil vapours on Acanthoscelides obtectus (Say)(Coleoptera: Bruchidae). Journal of Stored Products Research, 38(2), 117-128.
• O. basilicum essential oil completely inhibited the growth of 22 species of fungi.  This included the mycotoxin-producing strains of Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus. As an insect repellent, it worked against the insect Allacophora foveicollis.  From:  Dube, S., Upadhyay, P. D., & Tripathi, S. C. (1989). Antifungal, physicochemical, and insect-repelling activity of the essential oil of Ocimum basilicum. Canadian journal of botany, 67(7), 2085-2087.
• Vetiver and basil extracts were larvicidal agains the malaria vector: Anopheles stephensi Liston.  From:  Aarthi, N., & Murugan, K. (2010). Larvicidal and repellent activity of Vetiveria zizanioides L, Ocimum basilicum Linn and the microbial pesticide spinosad against malarial vector, Anopheles stephensi Liston (Insecta: Diptera: Culicidae). Journal of Biopesticides, 3(Special Issue), 199.
• A review of plant based mosquitoe repellents is provided. Much research is available on plants of the Eucalyptus spp., Ocimum spp. and Cymbopogon sp. From: Rehman, J. U., Ali, A., & Khan, I. A. (2014). Plant based products: use and development as repellents against mosquitoes: a review. Fitoterapia, 95, 65-74.

ANTI-PARASITE

• Ocimum sanctum and eugenol tested in vitro, showed potent anthelmintic activity.  From:  Asha, M. K., Prashanth, D., Murali, B., Padmaja, R., & Amit, A. (2001). Anthelmintic activity of essential oil of Ocimum sanctum and eugenol. Fitoterapia, 72(6), 669-670.
• Essential oils from fresh leaves of Cymbopogon citratus and Ocimum gratissimum demonstrated an anti-malarial effect in mice.  From:  Tchoumbougnang, F., Zollo, P. A., Dagne, E., & Mekonnen, Y. (2005). In vivo antimalarial activity of essential oils from Cymbopogon citratus and Ocimum gratissimum on mice infected with Plasmodium berghei. Planta medica, 71(01), 20-23.
• Clove, basil, and yarrow were effective against the parasite T. cruzi that feeds on blood and lymph.  From:  Santoro, G. F., Cardoso, M. G., Guimarães, L. G. L., Mendonça, L. Z., & Soares, M. J. (2007). Trypanosoma cruzi: activity of essential oils from Achillea millefolium L., Syzygium aromaticum L. and Ocimum basilicum L. on epimastigotes and trypomastigotes. Experimental parasitology, 116(3), 283-290.

ANTI-INFLAMMATORY

• Both basil and its estragole constituent demonstrated anti-inflammatory activity, with the essential oil more effective than the constituent for acute and chronic anti-inflammatory action.  From:  Rodrigues, L. B., Martins, A. O. B. P. B., Cesário, F. R. A. S., e Castro, F. F., de Albuquerque, T. R., Fernandes, M. N. M., … & Barbosa, R. (2016). Anti-inflammatory and anti-edematogenic activity of the Ocimum basilicum essential oil and its main compound estragole: In vivo mouse models. Chemico-Biological Interactions, 257, 14-25.
• Ocimum sanctum and its components of cirsilineol, cirsimaritin, isothymusin, isothymonin, apigenin, rosmarinic acid, and eugenol demonstrated varying degrees of antioxidant and anti-inflammatory qualities.  From:  Kelm, M. A., Nair, M. G., Strasburg, G. M., & DeWitt, D. L. (2000). Antioxidant and cyclooxygenase inhibitory phenolic compounds from Ocimum sanctum Linn. Phytomedicine, 7(1), 7-13.
• Phytochemicals derived from spices can reduce inflammatory diseases.  These include:  turmeric (curcumin), red pepper (capsaicin), cloves (eugenol), ginger (gingerol), cumin, anise (anethol), fennel (anethol), basil (ursolic acid), rosemary (ursolic acid), garlic (diallyl sulfide, S-allylmercaptocysteine, and ajoene), and pomegranate (ellagic acid). From:  Aggarwal, B. B., & Shishodia, S. (2004). Suppression of the Nuclear Factor‐κB Activation Pathway by Spice‐Derived Phytochemicals: Reasoning for Seasoning. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1030(1), 434-441.
• With constituents of methylchavicol (47%), geranial (19%) and neral (15%),  Ocimum basilicum (basil) oil had radical scavenging and antioxidant activities and may be usable in treating oxidative damage and stress from certain inflammatory conditions.  From:  Kavoosi, G., & Amirghofran, Z. (2016). Chemical composition, radical scavenging and antioxidant capacity of Ocimum Basilicum essential oil. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 1-11.
• Ocimum sanctum and its components of cirsilineol, cirsimaritin, isothymusin, isothymonin, apigenin, rosmarinic acid, and eugenol demonstrated varying degrees of antioxidant and anti-inflammatory qualities.  From:  Kelm, M. A., Nair, M. G., Strasburg, G. M., & DeWitt, D. L. (2000). Antioxidant and cyclooxygenase inhibitory phenolic compounds from Ocimum sanctum Linn. Phytomedicine, 7(1), 7-13.

ANALGESIC

• Ocimum sanctum had an analgesic effect on mice.  From:  Khanna, N., & Bhatia, J. (2003). Antinociceptive action of Ocimum sanctum (Tulsi) in mice: possible mechanisms involved. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 88(2), 293-296.
• O. basilicum essential oil is anti-hyperalgesic and may offer a therapeutic option for the treatment of chronic pain conditions like fibromyalgia.  From:  Nascimento, S. S., Araújo, A. A., Brito, R. G., Serafini, M. R., Menezes, P. P., DeSantana, J. M., … & Oliveira, A. P. (2014). Cyclodextrin-complexed Ocimum basilicum leaves essential oil increases Fos protein expression in the central nervous system and produce an antihyperalgesic effect in animal models for fibromyalgia. International journal of molecular sciences, 16(1), 547-563.
• Research on analgesic activities of essential oils is reviewed. Included is: wild caraway (Bunium persicum ), lemon (Citrus limon), lemongrass (Cymbopogon citrates), eucalyptus (Eucalyptus citriodora), clove (Eugenia caryophyllata), hogweed (Heracleum persicum), Hofmeisteria schaffneri, bushmint (Hyptis fruticosa), star anise (Illicum lanceolatum), verbenea (Lippia gracilis), chamomile (Matricaria recutita), Cuban mint (Mentha x villosa), catmint (Nepeta crispa Willd), basil (Ocimum basilicum), Peperomia serpens, Pimenta pseudocaryophyllus, long pepper (Piper alyreanum), Summer savory (Satureja hortensis), Senecio rufinervis, Tetradenia riparia, Teucrium stocksianum, Ugni myricoides, valerian (Valeriana wallichii), Xylopia laevigata, and candeeiro (Vanillosmopsis arborea). From: Sarmento-Neto, J., do Nascimento, L., Felipe, C., & de Sousa, D. (2015). Analgesic potential of essential oils. Molecules, 21(1), 20.
• In a review of research, plants used to treat neuropathic pain include: Vernonia cinerea, Ocimum sanctum, Ferula hermonis, Sambucus nigra, Salvia officinalis, Moringa oleifera, Harpagophytum procumbens, Momordica charantia, Butea monosperma, Punica granatum, Commiphora mukul, Ginkgo biloba, Crocus sativus , Cymbopogon martinii, Sinomenium acutum, Euterpe oleracea, Matricaria chamomilla, Nigella sativa, Aconiti tuber, Emblica officinalis, Phyllanthus amarus, Artemisia dracunculus, Allium sepa, and Allium sativum. From: Verma, S., Jain, C. P., Chauhan, L. S., & Shukla, A. K. (2016). A review on treatment and management of neuropathic pain with herbal folk drugs. Asian Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, 2(5), 104-110.

​SKIN / WOUND HEALING

• In a study with 11 male volunteers with the average age of 48, a 3% Ocimum basilicum cream applied daily for 12 weeks had an anti-aging effect.  From:  Rasul, A., & Akhtar, N. (2011). Formulation and in vivo evaluation for anti-aging effects of an emulsion containing basil extract using non-invasive biophysical techniques. DARU: Journal of Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, 19(5), 344.
• Ocimum sanctum demonstrated wound healing and antioxidant activity in rats.  From:  Shetty, S., Udupa, S., Udupa, L., & Somayaji, N. (2005). Wound healing activity of Ocimum sanctum Linn with supportive role of antioxidant enzymes. Indian journal of physiology and pharmacology, 50(2), 163-168.
• Ocimum sanctum has wound healing and antioxidant properties in rats.  From:  Shetty, S., Udupa, S., & Udupa, L. (2008). Evaluation of antioxidant and wound healing effects of alcoholic and aqueous extract of Ocimum sanctum Linn in rats. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 5(1), 95-101.
• Ocimum sanctum improved wound healing in rats related to the induction of tumor necrosis factor-α.  From:  Goel, A., Kumar, S., Singh, D. K., & Bhatia, A. K. (2010). Wound healing potential of Ocimum sanctum Linn. with induction of tumor necrosis factor-α.
• The leaf extract of Ocimum sanctum promotes wound healing significantly.  From:  Udupa, S. L., Shetty, S., Udupa, A. L., & Somayaji, S. N. (2006). Effect of Ocimum sanctum Linn. on normal and dexamethasone suppressed wound healing. Indian journal of experimental biology, 44(1), 49.
• Folk medicine of India has used basil for wound healing.  From:  Kumar, B., Vijayakumar, M., Govindarajan, R., & Pushpangadan, P. (2007). Ethnopharmacological approaches to wound healing—exploring medicinal plants of India. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 114(2), 103-113.
• Cajuput and basil oils were combined to demonstrate topical antibacterial application.  From:  Jedlickova, Z., Mottl, O., & Serý, V. (1991). Antibacterial properties of the Vietnamese cajeput oil and ocimum oil in combination with antibacterial agents. Journal of hygiene, epidemiology, microbiology, and immunology, 36(3), 303-309.

ACNE

• In a controlled comparison study of 51 people with acne, applying crushed basil leaves to the face twice daily for 8 weeks was just as effective as the group that took tetracycline (500 mg, 2 times per day) and a facial sulfur lotion at reducing acne. From:  Balambal, R., Thiruvengadam, K. V., Kameswarant, L., Janaki, V. R., & Thambiah, A. S. (1985). Ocimum basilicum in acne vulgaris–a controlled comparison with a standard regime. The Journal of the Association of Physicians of India, 33(8), 507-508.
• In a study of 126 subjects with acne, a 2% Ocimum oil was more effecive than benzoyl peroxide in treating acne.  From:  Orafidiya, L., Agbani, E., Oyedele, A., Babalola, O., & Onayemi, O. (2002). Preliminary clinical tests on topical preparations of Ocimum gratissimum Linn leaf essential oil for the treatment of acne vulgaris. Clinical Drug Investigation, 22(5), 313-319.

MOUTH COLD SORES

• Essential oils from Columbia of the Labiatae family showed the most anti-herpetic activity, with Lepechinia salvifolia (pitchersage), Hyptis mutabilis (bushmint), Lepechinia vulcanicola (pitchersage), Mintostachys mollis (mint) and Ocimum campechianum (basil) inhibiting activity during early stages of the herpes infection.  From:  Brand, Y. M., Roa-Linares, V. C., Betancur-Galvis, L. A., Durán-García, D. C., & Stashenko, E. (2016). Antiviral activity of Colombian Labiatae and Verbenaceae family essential oils and monoterpenes on Human Herpes viruses. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 28(2), 130-137.

GASTRO-PROTECTIVE

• Ocimum basilicum seemed to relieve symptoms of dyspepsia. ​From: Rafieian-Kopaei, M., & Hosseini-Asl, K. (2015). Effects of Ocimum basilicum on functional dyspepsia: a double-blind placebo-controlled study. Iranian Journal of Medical Sciences, 30(3), 134-137.
• Ocimum basilicum exhibited a protective effect against acetic acid–induced colitis.  From:  Rashidian, A., Roohi, P., Mehrzadi, S., Ghannadi, A. R., & Minaiyan, M. (2015). Protective effect of ocimum basilicum essential oil against acetic acid–induced colitis in rats. Journal of evidence-based complementary & alternative medicine, 2156587215616550.
• Basil demonstrated anti-ulcerogenic properties potentially via active flavonoid glycosides.  From:  Akhtar, M. S., Akhtar, A. H., & Khan, M. A. (1992). Antiulcerogenic effects of Ocimum basilicum extracts, volatile oils and flavonoid glycosides in albino rats. International Journal of Pharmacognosy, 30(2), 97-104.
• Basil oil exerted relaxant effects on intestinal smooth muscle of guinea pigs, and may be considered to treat gastrointestinal disorders.  From:  Madeira, S. V., Matos, F. J. A., Leal-Cardoso, J. H., & Criddle, D. N. (2002). Relaxant effects of the essential oil of Ocimum gratissimum on isolated ileum of the guinea pig. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 81(1), 1-4.

CARDIAC PROTECTIVE / HYPOTENSIVE / HYPOLIPIDEMIC

• In a study of 30 young overweight participants, 250 mg twice a day for 8 weeks of a basil supplement resulted in improved insulin, cholesterol, and body weight levels.  From:  Satapathy, S., Das, N., Bandyopadhyay, D., Mahapatra, S. C., Sahu, D. S., & Meda, M. (2017). Effect of Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum Linn.) supplementation on metabolic parameters and liver enzymes in young overweight and obese subjects. Indian Journal of Clinical Biochemistry, 32(3), 357-363.
• Basil possessed an inhibitory effect on platelet aggregation and resulted in an anti-thrombotic effect in vivo.  From:  Tohti, I., Tursun, M., Umar, A., Turdi, S., Imin, H., & Moore, N. (2006). Aqueous extracts of Ocimum basilicum L.(sweet basil) decrease platelet aggregation induced by ADP and thrombin in vitro and rats arterio–venous shunt thrombosis in vivo. Thrombosis research, 118(6), 733-739.
• In a study with 100 adults, taking a tulsi supplement (5 mL 2 times a day for 3 months) reduced blood glucose, blood pressure and lipid profile.  From:  Devra, D. K., Mathur, K. C., Agrawal, R. P., Bhadu, I., Goyal, S., & Agarwal, V. (2012). Effect of Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum Linn.) on clinical and biochemical parameters of metabolic syndrome. Journal of Natural Remedies, 12(1), 63-67.
• In this randomized double blind placebo controlled study with 22 healthy adults, taking 300 mg of tulsi leaves daily for 4 weeks reduced lipid profile.  From:  Mondal, S., Mirdha, B., Padhi, M., & Mahapatra, S. (2012). Dried leaf extract of Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum Linn) reduces cardiovascular disease risk factors: results of a double blinded randomized controlled trial in healthy volunteers. Journal of Preventive Cardiology, 1(4), 177-181.
• In a study of 50 young hypotensive female adults, taking fresh juice from 15 tulsi leaves twice a day for 4 weeks helped improve blood pressure.  From:  Bhargava, A., Gangwar, L., & Grewal, H. S. (2013). To study the effect of holy basil leaves on low blood pressure (hypotension) women aged 18–30 years. In International Conference on Food and Agricultural Sciences (Vol. 55, No. 16, pp. 83-86).
• In a study with 400 diabetic patients, Mangifera indica, Murraya koenigii, Ocimum santum, Phyllanthus amarus, Allium cep and Azadirachta indica had an anti-diabetic and hypolipidemic effect. From:  Dineshkumar, B., Analava, M., & Manjunatha, M. (2010). Antidiabetic and hypolipidaemic effects of few common plants extract in type 2 diabetic patients at Bengal. International Journal of Diabetes and Metabolism, 18(2), 59-65.
• Ocimum sanctum demonstrated anti-lipid peroxidative and significant liver and aortic tissue protection from hypercholesterolemia-induced peroxidative damage in rabbits.  From:  Geetha, R. K., & Vasudevan, D. M. (2004). Inhibition of lipid peroxidation by botanical extracts of Ocimum sanctum: in vivo and in vitro studies. Life sciences, 76(1), 21-28.
• In animal studies, O. sanctum lowered blood pressure, thinned blood, and increased sleep time.  From:  Singh, S., Rehan, H. M. S., & Majumdar, D. K. (2001). Effect of Ocimum sanctum fixed oil on blood pressure, blood clotting time and pentobarbitone-induced sleeping time. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 78(2), 139-143.
• Ocimum sanctum protected rat hearts from chronic restraint stress induced changes.  From:  Sood, S., Narang, D., Thomas, M. K., Gupta, Y. K., & Maulik, S. K. (2006). Effect of Ocimum sanctum Linn. on cardiac changes in rats subjected to chronic restraint stress. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 108(3), 423-427.
• A compilation of research showed the following herbs to have a hypolipidemic effect:  yarrow, onion, garlic, dill, celery, burdock, oats, barberry, cabbage, chili pepper, safflower, chicory, chickpea, bitter orange, orange, guggul, coriander, cranberry, melon, pumpkin, artichoke, ginseng, eugenol, schelelecht, ginkgo, soy, walnut, apple, nutmeg, red yeast rice, miswak, evening primrose, basil, bulacy, orchis, avocado, plantain, blond plotitago, green bean, purslane, black cherry, pomegranate, milk thistle, brinjal, tomato, tamarind, thea, thyme, fenugreek, bilberry, grape, ginger, and corn.  From:  Rouhi-Boroujeni, H., Rouhi-Boroujeni, H., Khoddami, M., Khazraei, H. R., Dehkordil, E. B., & Rafieian-Kopaei, M. (2017). Hypolipidemic herbals with diuretic effects: A systematic review. In Biol. Sci (Vol. 8, pp. 21-28).

HEPATOPROTECTIVE

• Ocimum basilicum demonstrated hepatoprotectivity via geranial and citral constituents.  From:  Saha, S., Mukhopadhyay, M. K., Ghosh, P. D., & Nath, D. (2012). Effect of methanolic leaf extract of Ocimum basilicum L. on benzene-induced hematotoxicity in mice. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2012.
• Ocimum sanctum demonstrated anti-lipid peroxidative and significant liver and aortic tissue protection from hypercholesterolemia-induced peroxidative damage in rabbits.  From:  Geetha, R. K., & Vasudevan, D. M. (2004). Inhibition of lipid peroxidation by botanical extracts of Ocimum sanctum: in vivo and in vitro studies. Life sciences, 76(1), 21-28.
• Ocimum sanctum alcohol leaf extract shows significant hepatoprotective activity.  From:  Lahon, K., & Das, S. (2011). Hepatoprotective activity of Ocimum sanctum alcoholic leaf extract against paracetamol-induced liver damage in Albino rats. Pharmacognosy research, 3(1), 13.

ORAL HEALTH

• In an 8 day study with 45 high school aged children, a tulsi mouthwash reduced salivary Streptocococcus mutans as much as common mouthwash brands.  From:  Agarwal, P., & Nagesh, L. (2011). Comparative evaluation of efficacy of 0.2% Chlorhexidine, Listerine and Tulsi extract mouth rinses on salivary Streptococcus mutans count of high school children—RCT. Contemporary clinical trials, 32(6), 802-808.
• In a triple blind randomized control trial with 108 medical students, Ocimum sanctum mouthwash was as effective as chlorhexidine on dental plaque and gingivitis. From:  Gupta, D., Bhaskar, D. J., Gupta, R. K., Karim, B., Jain, A., Singh, R., & Karim, W. (2014). A randomized controlled clinical trial of Ocimum sanctum and chlorhexidine mouthwash on dental plaque and gingival inflammation. Journal of Ayurveda and integrative medicine, 5(2), 109.
• In this study, 30 subjects were randomly assigned to a basil mouthwash, chlorhexidine, or sterile water, to be taken twice a day for 4 days.  Holy basil showed inhibition of the oral pathogens: P. intermedia and F. nucleatum.  From:  Hosamane, M., Acharya, A. B., Vij, C., Trivedi, D., Setty, S. B., & Thakur, S. L. (2014). Evaluation of holy basil mouthwash as an adjunctive plaque control agent in a four day plaque regrowth model. Journal of clinical and experimental dentistry, 6(5), e491.
• Oral antibacterial effectiveness of essential oils is reviewed.  Oils include: Achillea ligustica (yarrow), Baccharis dracunculifolia, Croton cajucara (sacaca), Cryptomeria japonica (Japanese red cedar), Coriandrum sativum (coriander), Eugenia caryophyllata (clove), Lippia sidoides, Ocimum americanum (basil), and Rosmarinus officinalis (rosemary). Constituents worth mentioning include menthol and eugenol.  From:  Freires, I. A., Denny, C., Benso, B., de Alencar, S. M., & Rosalen, P. L. (2015). Antibacterial activity of essential oils and their isolated constituents against cariogenic bacteria: a systematic review. Molecules, 20(4), 7329-7358.
• In a double blind clinical 3 day cross over study with 15 volunteers, chlorhexidine digluconate and a 10% basil mouthwash were able to inhibit plaque re-growth.  From:  Pimenta, M. S., Lobo, N. S. G., Vieira, V. C., Costa, Â. M. A. D., Costa, F. N. D., & Pereira, S. L. D. S. (2016). Effect of Ocimum gratissimum in mouthrinses on de novo plaque formation. A randomized clinical trial. Brazilian Dental Journal, 27(6), 646-651.
• In a small 90 day study with 30 participants, mouth rinse containing Ocimum gratissimum was as effective against plaque and gingivitis as chlorhexidine digluconate. From:  da Silva Pereira, S. L. S., de Oliveira, J. W. G., Ângelo, K. K. S. V., da Costa, A. M. A., & Costa, F. N. (2011). Clinical effect of a mouth rinse containing Ocimum gratissimum on plaque and gingivitis control. J Contemp Dent Pract, 12, 350-355.
• In this review of research of herbs to help with gingivitis, neem, clove, holy basil, cranberry, frankincense, pomegranate, and guava were mentioned.  From:  Lakshmi, T., Rajesvari, R., Selvaraj, A., & Parameswari, R. (2017). Herbal care for dental plaque-induced gingivitis: A review. Journal of Advanced Pharmacy Education & Research| Jul-Sep, 7(3).
• Ocimum sanctum showed radioprotective properties and might be usable for Iodine induced damage to the salivary glands.  From:  Bhartiya, U. S., Raut, Y. S., Joseph, L. J., & Rao, B. S. (2006). Protective effect of Ocimum sanctum L after high-dose iodine exposure in mice: An in vivo study. Indian journal of experimental biology, 44(8), 647.
• Against the oral bacteria: Streptococcus mutans, Porphyromonas gingivalis, and Lactobacillus rhamnosus, the 13 most effective essential oils were: myrrh, ginger, basil, carrot seed, tea tree, patchouli, ylang ylang, cypress, lemongrass, cinnamon, peppermint, lavender, and eucalyptus. From: Park, C., & Yoon, H. (2018). Antimicrobial Activity of Essential Oil against Oral Strain. International Journal of Clinical Preventive Dentistry, 14(4), 216-221.
• Ethenol extracts from Syzygium aromaticum, Allium sativum, Curcuma longa, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Ocimum sanctum, Piper nigrum, Azadirachta indica, Centella asiatica, and Zingiber officinale showed antimicrobial activity against most tested oral microbes. From: Gauniyal, P., & Teotia, U. V. S. (2014). Phytochemical screening and antimicrobial activity of some medicinal plants against oral flora. Asian Pac J Health Sci, 1(3), 255-63.

ANTI-DIABETIC

• In a randomized controlled trial with 40 adult males, taking 3 grams of tulsi leaves a day for 6.5 weeks signficantly reduced blool sugar levels.  From:  Gandhi, R., Chauhan, B., & Jadeja, G. (2016). Effect of Ocimum sanctum (Tulsi) powder on hyperglycemic patient. Indian Journal of Applied Research, 6(5).
• A randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover single blind trial showed holy basil reduced blood sugar levels in patients with noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus.  From:  Agrawal, P., Rai, V., & Singh, R. B. (1996). Randomized placebo-controlled, single blind trial of holy basil leaves in patients with noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. International journal of clinical pharmacology and therapeutics, 34(9), 406-409.
• In a study of 30 young overweight participants, 250 mg twice a day for 8 weeks of a basil supplement resulted in improved insulin, cholesterol, and body weight levels.  From:  Satapathy, S., Das, N., Bandyopadhyay, D., Mahapatra, S. C., Sahu, D. S., & Meda, M. (2017). Effect of Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum Linn.) supplementation on metabolic parameters and liver enzymes in young overweight and obese subjects. Indian Journal of Clinical Biochemistry, 32(3), 357-363.
• In a study with 100 adults, taking a tulsi supplement (5 mL 2 times a day for 3 months) reduced blood glucose, blood pressure and lipid profile.  From:  Devra, D. K., Mathur, K. C., Agrawal, R. P., Bhadu, I., Goyal, S., & Agarwal, V. (2012). Effect of Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum Linn.) on clinical and biochemical parameters of metabolic syndrome. Journal of Natural Remedies, 12(1), 63-67.
• In a study with 400 diabetic patients, Mangifera indica, Murraya koenigii, Ocimum santum, Phyllanthus amarus, Allium cep and Azadirachta indica had an anti-diabetic and hypolipidemic effect. From:  Dineshkumar, B., Analava, M., & Manjunatha, M. (2010). Antidiabetic and hypolipidaemic effects of few common plants extract in type 2 diabetic patients at Bengal. International Journal of Diabetes and Metabolism, 18(2), 59-65.
• Extracts from Murraya koenigii (curry tree), Mentha piperitae (peppermint), Ocimum sanctum (basil), and Aegle marmelos (wood apple) resulted in a significant decrease in the levels of blood glucose, glycosylated haemoglobin and urea, in diabetic rats.  From:  Narendhirakannan, R. T., Subramanian, S., & Kandaswamy, M. (2006). Biochemical evaluation of antidiabetogenic properties of some commonly used Indian plants on streptozotocin‐induced diabetes in experimental rats. Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology, 33(12), 1150-1157.
• Ocimum sanctum leaf extracts had a stimulatory effects on insulin secretion which may relate to antidiabetic action.  From:  Hannan, J. M. A., Marenah, L., Ali, L., Rokeya, B., Flatt, P. R., & Abdel-Wahab, Y. H. A. (2006). Ocimum sanctum leaf extracts stimulate insulin secretion from perfused pancreas, isolated islets and clonal pancreatic β-cells. Journal of Endocrinology, 189(1), 127-136.
• In a randomized parallel control study with 60 diabetic adults, 13 weeks of taking 300 mg of tulsi leaves plus 5 mg of glibenclamide reduced blood sugar levels. From:  Somasundaram, G., Manimekalai, K., Salwe, K. J., & Pandiamunian, J. (2012). Evaluation of the antidiabetic effect of Ocimum sanctum in type 2 diabetic patients. International journal of life science and pharma research, 5, 75-81.
• Inula racemosa, Boerhaavia diffusa and Ocimum sanctum (basil) exhibited antiperoxidative, hypoglycaemic and cortisol lowering activities; it is suggested that these three plant extracts may potentially regulate corticosteroid induced diabetes.  From:  Gholap, S., & Kar, A. (2004). Hypoglycaemic effects of some plant extracts are possibly mediated through inhibition in corticosteroid concentration. Die Pharmazie-An International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 59(11), 876-878.
• In a study with 90 diabetic males, tulsi and neem leaves taken as a powder helped to reduce diabetic symptoms.  From:  Kochhar, A., Sharma, N., & Sachdeva, R. (2009). Effect of supplementation of Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) and Neem (Azadirachta indica) leaf powder on diabetic symptoms, anthropometric parameters and blood pressure of non insulin dependent male diabetics. Studies on Ethno-Medicine, 3(1), 5-9.
• Ocimum sanctum was studied for anti-diabetic activity in rats.  From:  Vats, V., Yadav, S. P., & Grover, J. K. (2004). Ethanolic extract of Ocimum sanctum leaves partially attenuates streptozotocin-induced alterations in glycogen content and carbohydrate metabolism in rats. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 90(1), 155-160.
• Ocimum sanctum powder had a hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effect of in diabetic rats.  From:  Rai, V., Iyer, U., & Mani, U. V. (1997). Effect of Tulasi (Ocimum sanctum) leaf powder supplementation on blood sugar levels, serum lipids and tissues lipids in diabetic rats. Plant foods for human nutrition, 50(1), 9-16.
• Ocimum sanctum had antidiabetic, hypo-cholesterolaemic and antioxidant effects on rabbits.  From:  Gupta, S., Mediratta, P. K., Singh, S., Sharma, K. K., & Shukla, R. (2006). Antidiabetic, anti-hypercholesterolaemic and antioxidant effect of Ocimum sanctum (Linn) seed oil. Indian journal of experimental biology, 44(4), 300.

COGNITION

• In a study with 40 healthy participants, taking 300 mg of a holy basil daily for 4 weeks improved memory and attention.  From:  Sampath, S., Mahapatra, S. C., Padhi, M. M., Sharma, R., & Talwar, A. (2015). Holy basil (Ocimum sanctum Linn.) leaf extract enhances specific cognitive parameters in healthy adult volunteers: a placebo controlled study. Indian journal of physiology and pharmacology, 59(1), 69-77.
• Ocimum sanctum improved cognitive performance in mice and could be used in treatment of cognitive disorders such as dementia and Alzheimer’s disease.  From:  Joshi, H., & Parle, M. (2006). Evaluation of nootropic potential of Ocimum sanctum Linn. in mice. Indian journal of experimental biology, 44(2), 133.
• Inhaling peppermint, basil, and helichrysum reduced the level of mental fatigue.  From:  Varney, E., & Buckle, J. (2013). Effect of inhaled essential oils on mental exhaustion and moderate burnout: a small pilot study. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 19(1), 69-71.
• Human inhalation of basil aroma significantly increased fingertip skin temperature and β waves of the brain associated with improved alertness.  From:  Satoh, T., & Sugawara, Y. (2003). Effects on humans elicited by inhaling the fragrance of essential oils: Sensory test, multi-channel thermometric study and forehead surface potential wave measurement on basil and peppermint. Analytical Sciences, 19(1), 139-146.

NEUROPROTECTIVE

• Ocimum sanctum showed an antioxidant and neuroprotective effect that may be useful in treating cerebral reperfusion injury and cerebrovascular insufficiency states and improve memory loss.  From:  Yanpallewar, S. U., Rai, S., Kumar, M., & Acharya, S. B. (2004). Evaluation of antioxidant and neuroprotective effect of Ocimum sanctum on transient cerebral ischemia and long-term cerebral hypoperfusion. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 79(1), 155-164.
• Ocimum basilicum could be useful in the prevention of stroke.  From:  Bora, K. S., Arora, S., & Shri, R. (2011). Role of Ocimum basilicum L. in prevention of ischemia and reperfusion-induced cerebral damage, and motor dysfunctions in mice brain. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 137(3), 1360-1365.

WEIGHT

• In a study of 30 young overweight participants, 250 mg twice a day for 8 weeks of a basil supplement resulted in improved insulin, cholesterol, and body weight levels.  From:  Satapathy, S., Das, N., Bandyopadhyay, D., Mahapatra, S. C., Sahu, D. S., & Meda, M. (2017). Effect of Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum Linn.) supplementation on metabolic parameters and liver enzymes in young overweight and obese subjects. Indian Journal of Clinical Biochemistry, 32(3), 357-363.

ANXIOLITIC / STRESS

• In a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study, an extract of Ocimum tenuiflorum reduced stress over the placebo.  From:  Saxena, R. C., Singh, R., Kumar, P., Negi, M. P. S., Saxena, V. S., Geetharani, P., … & Venkateshwarlu, K. (2011). Efficacy of an extract of ocimum tenuiflorum (OciBest) in the management of general stress: A double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2012.
• Patients with anxiety disorders took O. sanctum leaf at 500 mg twice a day and noticed significant reduction in stress.  From:  Bhattacharyya, D., Sur, T. K., Jana, U., & Debnath, P. K. (2008). Controlled programmed trial of Ocimum sanctum leaf on generalized anxiety disorders.
• Basil had anti-anxiety effects and did not cause sedation to the extent observed with diazepam.  From:  Rabbani, M., Sajjadi, S. E., & Vaezi, A. (2015). Evaluation of anxiolytic and sedative effect of essential oil and hydroalcoholic extract of Ocimum basilicum L. and chemical composition of its essential oil. Research in pharmaceutical sciences, 10(6), 535.
• Ocimum sanctum extract reduced anxiety, stress, and depression in humans.  From:  Bhattacharyya, D., Sur, T. K., Jana, U., & Debnath, P. K. (2008). Controlled programmed trial of Ocimum sanctum leaf on generalized anxiety disorders.
• Anxiolytic and antidepressant actions resulted after  inhalation of basil essential oils extracted from Ocimum sanctum and Ocimum basilicum in rats with Alzheimer’s disease.  From:  Gradinariu, V., Cioanca, O., Hritcu, L., Trifan, A., Gille, E., & Hancianu, M. (2015). Comparative efficacy of Ocimum sanctum L. and Ocimum basilicum L. essential oils against amyloid beta (1–42)-induced anxiety and depression in laboratory rats. Phytochemistry Reviews, 14(4), 567-575.
• Ocimum sanctumin essential oil reduced stress hormones in rats exposed to noise.  From:  Samson, J., Devi, R. S., Ravindran, R., & Senthilvelan, M. (2006). Biogenic amine changes in brain regions and attenuating action of Ocimum sanctumin noise exposure. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 83(1), 67-75.
• Ocimum sanctum in rats was an antioxidant for noise induced oxidative stress.  From:  Samson, J., Sheeladevi, R., & Ravindran, R. (2007). Oxidative stress in brain and antioxidant activity of Ocimum sanctum in noise exposure. Neurotoxicology, 28(3), 679-685.

FEMALE HEALTH

• In a study of 30 different vaginal isolated strains of C. albicans to twelve essential oils, compared to the three of the mainly used drugs (clotrimazole, fluconazole, itraconazole), mint, basil, lavender, tea tree oil, winter savory and oregano essential oils inhibited both the growth and the activity of C. albicans more efficiently than clotrimazole.  From:  Bona, E., Cantamessa, S., Pavan, M., Novello, G., Massa, N., Rocchetti, A., … & Gamalero, E. (2016). Sensitivity of Candida albicans to essential oils: are they an alternative to antifungal agents?. Journal of Applied Microbiology.

ANTI-FERTILITY

• Ocimum sanctum reduced sperm count in rabbits and may be used as a male contraceptive.  From:  Sethi, J., Yadav, M., Sood, S., Dahiya, K., & Singh, V. (2010). Effect of tulsi (Ocimum Sanctum Linn.) on sperm count and reproductive hormones in male albino rabbits. International journal of Ayurveda research, 1(4), 208.
• Rats fed O. sanctum leaves had reduced sperm count.  From:  Ahmed, M., Ahamed, R. N., Aladakatti, R. H., & Ghosesawar, M. G. (2002). Reversible anti-fertility effect of benzene extract of Ocimum sanctum leaves on sperm parameters and fructose content in rats. Journal of basic and clinical physiology and pharmacology, 13(1), 51-60.

​ANTI-CONVULSANT

• Ocimum sanctum demonstrated anticonvulsant capability.  From:  Jaggi, R. K., Madaan, R., & Singh, B. (2003). Anticonvulsant potential of holy basil, Ocimum sanctum Linn., and its cultures.

JOINT PAIN

• In a randomized parallel group of 200 adults with gouty arthritis and hyperuricaemia, taking either a 12 week supplement (10 drops taken three times a day) of Ocimum sanctum or Ledum palustre reduced serum uric acid levels.  From:  Ahmad, M., Faraazi, A. A., & Aamir, M. N. (2013). The effect of ocimum sanctum and ledum palustre on serum uric acid level in patients suffering from gouty arthritis and hyperuricaemia. Bulletin of the Chemical Society of Ethiopia, 27(3), 469-473.

INSOMNIA

• Insomnia was reduced in 150 elderly participants with aromatherapy nightly for a month of a blend of lavender (Lavandula angustifolia), marjoram (Origantum majorana), geranium (Pelargonium graveolens) and basil (Ocimum basilicum).  From:  Jezdic, Z., Vulinac, S. O., Racz, A., Kovacevic, I., Sedic, B., & Jadranka, P. (2018). Influence of Aromatherapy on Alleviation of Insomnia Symptoms. Complementary and Alternative Medicine: Open Access, 2018(02), 1-5.

STIMULANT / IMPROVED ENERGY

• In this randomized placebo controlled study including 30 healthy adults, taking a tulsi supplement of 1,000 mg twice daily for 2 weeks improved physical performance and energy levels.  From:  Venu Prasad, M. P. (2014). Antifatigue and neuroprotective properties of selected species of Ocimum L.

IMMUNITY

• In this randomized double blind placebo controlled study with 22 healthy adults, 300 mg taken daily for 4 weeks of tulsi leaf extract increased cytokine levels.  From:  Mondal, S., Varma, S., Bamola, V. D., Naik, S. N., Mirdha, B. R., Padhi, M. M., … & Mahapatra, S. C. (2011). Double-blinded randomized controlled trial for immunomodulatory effects of Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum Linn.) leaf extract on healthy volunteers. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 136(3), 452-456.

TRANSDERMAL DRUG DELIVERY

• Basil essential oil aided in transdermal drug delivery in vivo, with little skin irritation, perhaps related to its interaction wit the stratum corneum.  From:  Fang, J. Y., Leu, Y. L., Hwang, T. L., & Cheng, H. C. (2004). Essential oils from sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum) as novel enhancers to accelerate transdermal drug delivery. Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 27(11), 1819-1825.

GREEN GARDENING

• Thirty essential oils were tested against pathogenic plant bacteria. Ceylon cinnamon (leaf and bark), oregano, clove bud, palmarosa, basil, peppermint, rosemary, blue gum, camphor, lemongrass, aniseed, ylang ylang, silver fir, lemon, dwarf mountain pine, bay laurel, scots pine, black cumin, Indian frankincense, bergamot orange, common juniper, bitter orange, and neem showed varying degrees of reaction.  From: Popović, T., Milićević, Z., Oro, V., Kostić, I., Radović, V., Jelušić, A., & Krnjajić, S. (2018). A preliminary study of antibacterial activity of thirty essential oils against several important plant pathogenic bacteria. Pesticidi i fitomedicina, 33(3-4), 185-195.

By: Kathy Sadowski

Updated: 9/18/19