Bergamot (Citrus aurantium var. bergamia) Research

Latin Name: Citrus aurantium var. bergamia (Risso)

Family: Rutaceae

Bergamot oil comes from the pressed peel and sometimes fruit of the bitter orange tree.  Its aroma is fresh, herbal, and citrus-like.  The aroma in research has been found to be calming, and the oil has shown to be antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-nociceptive and more.

RESEARCH

The listings of research below represent a compilation of scientific articles found on the species, with a very brief overview description of each article/study.  Research found is catalogued by therapeutic action.  This categorized compilation of research articles does not necessarily imply that there are adequate results to demonstrate safe and/or effective human use.

GENERAL

• Lis-Balchin, M.  (2006). Aromatherapy science, A guide for healthcare professionals.  Pharmaceutical Press:  London.

• Petersen, D. (2015). Aromatherapy materia medica.  Essential oil monographs.  American College of Healthcare Sciences.

• Tisserand, R. & Young, R. (2014).  Essential Oil Safety.  Second Edition.  Churchill, Livingstone, Elsevier.

• WebMD. (n.d.).  Bergamot.  Retrieved in November, 2015.  Retrieved from www.webmd.com

• This mega-analysis discussed the research on the therapeutic actions of bergamot.  Modern medicine utilizes the plant as an antiseptic and antibacterial.  Human studies have demonstrated the aroma to be anxiolytic and help with insomnia.  Italian folk remedies rely on the plant to reduce fever, and as an anti-parasite, antiseptic, antimicrobial, antifungal, and antibacterial.  It has been used by Italian people to treat skin, oral, respiratory, urinary, and vaginal infections.  From:  Navarra, M., Mannucci, C., Delbò, M., & Calapai, G. (2015). Citrus bergamia essential oil: from basic research to clinical application. Frontiers in pharmacology, 6, 36.
• Guzmán Gutiérrez, S. L., Reyes Chilpa, R., & Bonilla Jaime, H. (2014). Medicinal plants for the treatment of “nervios”, anxiety, and depression in Mexican Traditional Medicine. Revista Brasileira de Farmacognosia, 24(5), 591-608.
• Scientific research on the therapeutic actions of Citrus ssp were reviewed.  Bergamot showed analgesic, wound healing, cytotoxic, anti-tumor, anti-cancer, neuroprotective, sedative, anxiolytic, antioxidant, antibacterial, and antifungal activities.  From:  Dosoky, N., & Setzer, W. (2018). Biological activities and safety of Citrus spp. essential oils. International journal of molecular sciences, 19(7), 1966.

SAFETY

• Furocoumarins (bergaptene) make up less than ½ a percent of the oil but are highly photosensitizing; removal of furocoumarins makes it no longer phototoxic.  Oils listed as “Bergamot BF” or “Bergamot FCC” or “FCF” are bergaptene free (Lis-Balchin, 2006).
• Adulteration with synthetics or citrus oils and dilution with diethylphthalate may be present if the herbaceous dry out scent is not noticed (Lis-Balchin, 2006).  May also be adultered with synthetic constituents: linalool, limonene, and linalyl acetate, or acetylated ho oil (Tisserand & Young, 2014).
• Choose organic essential oil, pesticide free (Petersen, 2015).
• Bergamot may lower blood sugar, and a person with diabetes should monitor sugar levels (WebMD, n.d.).

ANTIMICROBIAL / ANTIFUNGAL​ / ANTIBACTERIAL

• Bergamot was antifungal against multiple species of dermatophytes.  From:  Sanguinetti, M., Posteraro, B., Romano, L., Battaglia, F., Lopizzo, T., De Carolis, E., & Fadda, G. (2006). In vitro activity of Citrus bergamia (bergamot) oil against clinical isolates of dermatophytes. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 59(2), 305-308.
• Citrus sinensis (Orange), Citrus limon (lemon) and Citrus bergamia (bergamot) were studied as a biological control alternative to chemical fungicides against Algerian strains of Phytophthora infestans, responsible for potato late blight.  All three essential oils demonstrated fungicidal effects with bergamot performing the best.  From:  Messgo-Moumene, S., Li, Y., Bachir, K., Houmani, Z., Bouznad, Z., & Chemat, F. (2015). Antifungal power of citrus essential oils against potato late blight causative agent. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 27(2), 169-176.
• Bergamot and its linalool constituent were most effective against bacteria that can cause food poisoning.  From:  Fisher, K., & Phillips, C. A. (2006). The effect of lemon, orange and bergamot essential oils and their components on the survival of Campylobacter jejuni, Escherichia coli O157, Listeria monocytogenes, Bacillus cereus and Staphylococcus aureus in vitro and in food systems. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 101(6), 1232-1240.
• The following commercially bought oils showed antimicrobial activity against multiple pathogens:  patchouli (Pogostemon cablin), myrrh (Commiphora myrrha), bergamot (Citrus bergamia), geranium (Geranium maculatum), sandalwood (Santalum album), ylang ylang (Cananga odorata), tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia), and lavender (Lavendula officinalis).   From:  Maudsley, F., & Kerr, K. G. (1999). Microbiological safety of essential oils used in complementary therapies and the activity of these compounds against bacterial and fungal pathogens. Supportive care in cancer, 7(2), 100-102.
• The antimicrobial activity of essential oils extracted from Citrus maxima (grapefruit), Citrus aurantium (bitter orange) , Citrus aurantifolia (key lime) and Limonia acidissima (woodapple) were assessed against five Gram-positive and ten Gram-negative bacteria, and a fungal strain: Candida albicans.  C. maxima and C. aurantifolia demonstrated antimicrobial properties, even when compared with positive controls antibiotics of ciprofloxacin and ketoconazole.The organisms most sensitive to the essential oils were Acinetobacter baumannii and those most resistant were Enterococcus faecalis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.  From:  Chintaluri, A. K., Komarraju, A. L., Chintaluri, V. K., & Vemulapalli, B. (2015). Comparative study of antimicrobial activity of essential oils of selected plants of Rutaceae and TLC bioautographic studies for detection of bioactive compounds. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 27(1), 9-16.
• Both Citrus limonum and Citrus aurantium essential oils are effective in controlling microbes in the oral cavity.  From:  Oliveira, S. A. C., Zambrana, J. R. M., Di Iorio, F. B. R., Pereira, C. A., & Jorge, A. O. C. (2014). The antimicrobial effects of Citrus limonum and Citrus aurantium essential oils on multi-species biofilms. Brazilian oral research, 28(1), 22-27.
• Bergamot oils are active in vitro against Candida.  From:  Romano, L., Battaglia, F., Masucci, L., Sanguinetti, M., Posteraro, B., Plotti, G., … & Fadda, G. (2005). In vitro activity of bergamot natural essence and furocoumarin-free and distilled extracts, and their associations with boric acid, against clinical yeast isolates. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 55(1), 110-114.

• Citrus limon (lemon), Citrus paradisi (grapefruit), Citrus bergamia (bergamot), Citrus aurantium (bitter orange), Citrus sinensis (sweet orange), and Citrus reticulata (mandarin) showed antimicrobial activity against multiple bacteria, fungi, and candida species in vitro.  From:  Kirbaşlar, F. G., Tavman, A., Dülger, B., & Türker, G. (2009). Antimicrobial activity of Turkish Citrus peel oils. Pak J Bot, 41(6), 3207-12.
• Citrus aurantium (bergamot), C. limon (lemon), Lavandula angustifolia (lavender), Matricaria chamomilla (chamomile), Mentha piperita (peppermint), M. spicata (spearmint), Ocimum basilicum (basil), Origanum vulgare(oregano), Thymus vulgaris (thyme), and Salvia officinalis (sage) along with their constituents were tested against human pathogenic bacteria.  The highest and broadest activity was shown by O. vulgare oil and carvacrol had the highest antibacterial activity among the tested constituents.  Other significant constituents included: camphor, 1,8-cineole, linalool, linalyl acetate, limonene, menthol, a-pinene, b-pinene, and thymol.  From:  Soković, M., Glamočlija, J., Marin, P. D., Brkić, D., & van Griensven, L. J. (2010). Antibacterial effects of the essential oils of commonly consumed medicinal herbs using an in vitro model. Molecules, 15(11), 7532-7546.

• Citrus bergamia was effective in vitro and has potential in the use for topical treatment of dermatophytoses.  From:  Sanguinetti, M., Posteraro, B., Romano, L., Battaglia, F., Lopizzo, T., De Carolis, E., & Fadda, G. (2007). In vitro activity of Citrus bergamia (bergamot) oil against clinical isolates of dermatophytes. Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy, 59(2), 305-308.

• Bergamot was antifungal against Penicillium italicum.  From:  Sánchez-González, L., Cháfer, M., Chiralt, A., & González-Martínez, C. (2010). Physical properties of edible chitosan films containing bergamot essential oil and their inhibitory action on Penicillium italicum. Carbohydrate Polymers, 82(2), 277-283.

• Citrus oils of orange, lemon, and bergamot may be an effective and safe antimicrobial additive in food.  From:  Fisher, K., & Phillips, C. (2008). Potential antimicrobial uses of essential oils in food: is citrus the answer?. Trends in food science & technology, 19(3), 156-164.

• Citrus vapor has a potential clinical application as a secondary disinfectant to reduce surface contamination of  Enterococcus sp. and Staphylococcus aureus.  From:  Laird, K., Armitage, D., & Phillips, C. (2012). Reduction of surface contamination and biofilms of Enterococcus sp. and Staphylococcus aureus using a citrus-based vapour. Journal of Hospital Infection, 80(1), 61-66.

• A blend of orange (Citrus sinensis) and bergamot (Citrus bergamia) against Enterococcus species was bactericidal.  From:  Fisher, K., & Phillips, C. (2009). The mechanism of action of a citrus oil blend against Enterococcus faecium and Enterococcus faecalis. Journal of applied microbiology, 106(4), 1343-1349.

• Antibacterial abilities of 96 essential oils and their constituents were assessed. Marigold, ginger, jasmine, patchouli, gardenia, cedarwood, carrot seed, celery seed, mugwort, spikenard, and orange bitter oils along with the constituents of cinnamaldehyde, estragole, carvacrol, benzaldehyde, citral, thymol, eugenol, perillaldehyde, carvone R, and geranyl acetate were strongest against C. jejuni.  From:  Friedman, M., Henika, P. R., & Mandrell, R. E. (2002). Bactericidal activities of plant essential oils and some of their isolated constituents against Campylobacter jejuni, Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, and Salmonella enterica. Journal of Food Protection®, 65(10), 1545-1560.
• The essential oils that inhibited intestinal dysbiosis pathogens the strongest were Carum carvi (caraway), Lavandula angustifolia (lavender). Trachyspermum copiicum (ajowan),  and Citrus aurantium (bitter orange).  From:  Myers, S. R., Hawrelak, J. A., & Cattley, T. (2009). Essential oils in the treatment of intestinal dysbiosis: a preliminary in vitro study. Alternative Medicine Review, 14(4), 380-384.
• Bergamot was antifungal against Penicillium italcium in vitro.  From:  Sánchez-González, L., Cháfer, M., Chiralt, A., & González-Martínez, C. (2010). Physical properties of edible chitosan films containing bergamot essential oil and their inhibitory action on Penicillium italicum. Carbohydrate polymers, 82(2), 277-283.
• Citrus essential oils showed a variety of effectiveness against foodborne pathogens in vitro. From: Restuccia, C., Conti, G. O., Zuccarello, P., Parafati, L., Cristaldi, A., & Ferrante, M. (2019). Efficacy of different citrus essential oils to inhibit the growth and B1 aflatoxin biosynthesis of Aspergillus flavus. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 1-10.

​ANTIOXIDANT

• Peel, flower, and leaves of Citrus aurantium oils showed the old leaves had the maximum antioxidant activity, followed by the flowers, then the young leaves, and then the peel. From:  Sarrou, E., Chatzopoulou, P., Dimassi-Theriou, K., & Therios, I. (2013). Volatile constituents and antioxidant activity of peel, flowers and leaf oils of Citrus aurantium L. growing in Greece. Molecules, 18(9), 10639-10647.

• Bergamot had a natural antioxidant/anti-inflammatory effect on human endothelial cells.  From:  Trombetta, D., Cimino, F., Cristani, M., Mandalari, G., Saija, A., Ginestra, G., … & Narbad, A. (2010). In vitro protective effects of two extracts from bergamot peels on human endothelial cells exposed to tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 58(14), 8430-8436

• Citrus aurantium peel and juice possess antioxidant activities. ​ From:  Marzouk, B. (2013). Characterization of bioactive compounds in Tunisian bitter orange (Citrus aurantium L.) peel and juice and determination of their antioxidant activities. BioMed research international, 2013.

• This study associated phenolic content with antioxidant activity in Citrus sinensis and Citrus aurantium.  From:  Lagha-Benamrouche, S., & Madani, K. (2013). Phenolic contents and antioxidant activity of orange varieties (Citrus sinensis L. and Citrus aurantium L.) cultivated in Algeria: Peels and leaves. Industrial Crops and Products, 50, 723-730.

• Polysaccharides from Citrus aurantium had therapeutic applications in medical and food industries related to their antioxidant activities.  From:  Wang, Q. H., Shu, Z. P., Xu, B. Q., Xing, N., Jiao, W. J., Yang, B. Y., & Kuang, H. X. (2014). Structural characterization and antioxidant activities of polysaccharides from Citrus aurantium L. International journal of biological macromolecules, 67, 112-123.

• Of 25 essential oils tested, thyme and clove showed the highest antioxidant activity; indicated were their thymol and eugenol components..  Cinnamon, basil, bergamot, eucalyptus, chamomile, bitter orange, and aloe vera were also effective.  From:  Wei, A., & Shibamoto, T. (2010). Antioxidant/lipoxygenase inhibitory activities and chemical compositions of selected essential oils. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 58(12), 7218-7225

ANTI-CANCER

• The anti-cancer activity of bergamot juice is evaluated.  From:  Delle Monache, S., Sanità, P., Trapasso, E., Ursino, M. R., Dugo, P., Russo, M., … & Navarra, M. (2013). Mechanisms underlying the anti-tumoral effects of Citrus bergamia juice. PLoS One, 8(4), e61484.

• Anti-proliferative and apoptotic effect of flavonoids isolated from Korean Citrus aurantium were studied.  From:  Park, K. I., Park, H. S., Nagappan, A., Hong, G. E., Lee, D. H., Kang, S. R., … & Shin, S. C. (2012). Induction of the cell cycle arrest and apoptosis by flavonoids isolated from Korean Citrus aurantium L. in non-small-cell lung cancer cells. Food chemistry, 135(4), 2728-2735.

• Flavonoids from Citrus aurantium possess anti-cancer activity via  the regulation of apoptosis and cell migration.  From:  Park, K. I., Park, H. S., Kim, M. K., Hong, G. E., Nagappan, A., Lee, H. J., … & Kim, G. S. (2014). Flavonoids identified from Korean Citrus aurantium L. inhibit Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer growth in vivo and in vitro. Journal of Functional Foods, 7, 287-297.

• Bergamot essential oil had an antiproliferative effects on neuroblastoma cancer cells.  From:  Navarra, M., Ferlazzo, N., Cirmi, S., Trapasso, E., Bramanti, P., Lombardo, G. E., … & Gangemi, S. (2015). Effects of bergamot essential oil and its extractive fractions on SH‐SY5Y human neuroblastoma cell growth. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, 67(8), 1042-1053.

• Citrus bergamia and a combined action of its monoterpenes limonene and linalyl acetate aided in cancer cell death induced by cytotoxicity.  From:  Russo, R., Ciociaro, A., Berliocchi, L., Cassiano, M. G. V., Rombolà, L., Ragusa, S., … & Corasaniti, M. T. (2013). Implication of limonene and linalyl acetate in cytotoxicity induced by bergamot essential oil in human neuroblastoma cells. Fitoterapia, 89, 48-57.

• Bergamot induces apoptosis in human colon cancer cells.  From:  Visalli, G., Ferlazzo, N., Cirmi, S., Campiglia, P., Gangemi, S., Di Pietro, A., … & Navarra, M. (2014). Bergamot juice extract inhibits proliferation by inducing apoptosis in human colon cancer cells. Anti-Cancer Agents in Medicinal Chemistry (Formerly Current Medicinal Chemistry-Anti-Cancer Agents), 14(10), 1402-1413.

• Bergamot reduced the growth of human hepatocellular carcinoma cells by both a pro-apoptotic mechanism and cell cycle arrest.  From:  Ursino, M. R., Trapasso, E., Calapai, G., & Navarra, M. (2009). Mechanisms underliying the antiproliferative effects of Citrus bergamia juice on HepG2 human hepatocellular carcinoma cell line. Planta Medica, 75(09), PE23.

GASTRO-PROTECTIVE / ANTI-ULCER

• Β-myrcene, a minor constituent in Citrus aurantium, inhibited gastric and duodenal ulcers by increasing the levels of gastric mucosa.  From:  Bonamin, F., Moraes, T. M., dos Santos, R. C., Kushima, H., Faria, F. M., Silva, M. A., … & da Rocha, L. R. (2014). The effect of a minor constituent of essential oil from Citrus aurantium: the role of β-myrcene in preventing peptic ulcer disease. Chemico-biological interactions, 212, 11-19.

• Citrus aurantium and d-limonene promote gastric mucosal healing without any apparent toxic effect in rats.  From:  Moraes, T. M., Rozza, A. L., Kushima, H., Pellizzon, C. H., Rocha, L. R. M., & Hiruma-Lima, C. A. (2013). Healing actions of essential oils from Citrus aurantium and d-limonene in the gastric mucosa: the roles of VEGF, PCNA, and COX-2 in cell proliferation. Journal of medicinal food, 16(12), 1162-1167.

• The essential oils that inhibited intestinal dysbiosis pathogens the strongest were Carum carvi (caraway), Lavandula angustifolia (lavender). Trachyspermum copiicum (ajowan),  and Citrus aurantium (bitter orange).  From:  Myers, S. R., Hawrelak, J. A., & Cattley, T. (2009). Essential oils in the treatment of intestinal dysbiosis: a preliminary in vitro study. Alternative Medicine Review, 14(4), 380-384.

• Mice with inflammatory bowel disease showed an anti-inflammatory effect with taking a bergamot supplement.  From:  Impellizzeri, D., Bruschetta, G., Di Paola, R., Ahmad, A., Campolo, M., Cuzzocrea, S., … & Navarra, M. (2015). The anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects of bergamot juice extract (BJe) in an experimental model of inflammatory bowel disease. Clinical Nutrition, 34(6), 1146-1154.

HEPATOPROTECTIVE

• Limonin from Citrus aurantium exerts protective effects on liver toxicity.  From:  Mahmoud, M. F., Hamdan, D. I., Wink, M., & El-Shazly, A. M. (2014). Hepatoprotective effect of limonin, a natural limonoid from the seed of Citrus aurantium var. bigaradia, on d-galactosamine-induced liver injury in rats. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg’s archives of pharmacology, 387(3), 251-261.

NEUROPROTECTIVE

• Bergamot oil reduced neuronal damage caused in vitro by excitotoxic stimuli.  From:  Corasaniti, M. T., Maiuolo, J., Maida, S., Fratto, V., Navarra, M., Russo, R., … & Bagetta, G. (2007). Cell signaling pathways in the mechanisms of neuroprotection afforded by bergamot essential oil against NMDA‐induced cell death in vitro. British journal of pharmacology, 151(4), 518-529.

• Bergamot was neuroprotection against brain injury induced by focal cerebral ischemia in rats.   From:  Amantea, D., Fratto, V., Maida, S., Rotiroti, D., Ragusa, S., Nappi, G., … & Corasaniti, M. T. (2009). Prevention of Glutamate Accumulation and Upregulation of Phospho‐Akt may Account for Neuroprotection Afforded by Bergamot Essential Oil against Brain Injury Induced by Focal Cerebral Ischemia in Rat. International review of neurobiology, 85, 389-405.

• Bergamot essential oil may have a neuroprotective effect.  From:  Bagetta, G., Morrone, L. A., Rombolà, L., Amantea, D., Russo, R., Berliocchi, L., … & Corasaniti, M. T. (2010). Neuropharmacology of the essential oil of bergamot. Fitoterapia, 81(6), 453-461.

​CARDIOVASCULAR HEALTH

• Bergamot is a natural antioxidant that may be relevant in the treatment of vascular disorders.  From:  Mollace, V., Ragusa, S., Sacco, I., Muscoli, C., Sculco, F., Visalli, V., … & Rotiroti, D. (2008). The protective effect of bergamot oil extract on lecitine-like oxyLDL receptor-1 expression in balloon injury-related neointima formation. Journal of cardiovascular pharmacology and therapeutics, 13(2), 120-129.

• Bergamot had protective effects on endothelial dysfunction associated with cardiovascular disease.  From:  You, J. H., Kang, P., Min, S. S., & Seol, G. H. (2013). Bergamot essential oil differentially modulates intracellular Ca2+ levels in vascular endothelial and smooth muscle cells: a new finding seen with fura-2.  Journal of cardiovascular pharmacology, 61(4), 324-328.

WEIGHT LOSS

• Citrus aurantium increased resting metabolic rate and energy expenditure, with modest weight loss in humans.  From:  Stohs, S. J., Preuss, H. G., & Shara, M. (2012). A review of the human clinical studies involving Citrus aurantium (bitter orange) extract and its primary protoalkaloid p-synephrine. Int J Med Sci, 9(7), 527-538.

• Citrus aurantium flavonoids suppressed adipogenesis and may aid in weight loss.  From:  Kim, G. S., Park, H. J., Woo, J. H., Kim, M. K., Koh, P. O., Min, W., … & Cho, J. H. (2012). Citrus aurantium flavonoids inhibit adipogenesis through the Akt signaling pathway in 3T3-L1 cells. BMC complementary and alternative medicine, 12(1), 1.

• Citrus aurantium (bergamot) and Rhodiola rosea (golden root) have actions on central monoamine pathways for the treatment of obesity.  From:  Verpeut, J. L., Walters, A. L., & Bello, N. T. (2013). Citrus aurantium and Rhodiola rosea in combination reduce visceral white adipose tissue and increase hypothalamic norepinephrine in a rat model of diet-induced obesity. Nutrition research, 33(6), 503-512.

CHOLESTEROL

• In a study of 237 patients with hyperlipemia, both cholesterol and blood sugar levels were reduced with the intake of a bergamot extract daily for 30 days.  Further, it may be an effective supplement in combating hyperlipemic and hyperglycaemic disorders.  From:  Mollace, V., Sacco, I., Janda, E., Malara, C., Ventrice, D., Colica, C., … & Rotiroti, D. (2011). Hypolipemic and hypoglycaemic activity of bergamot polyphenols: from animal models to human studies. Fitoterapia, 82(3), 309-316.

ANXIOLITIC / ANTI-DEPRESSIVE

• A study of 60 patients who were going to receive a laparoscopic cholecystectomy demonstrated that the group who received bergamot aromatherapy ahead of time had significantly lower salivary cortisol levels than the control group.  From:  Pasyar, N., Rambod, M., & Araghi, F. (2020). The effect of bergamot orange essence on anxiety, salivary cortisol, and alpha amylase in patients prior to laparoscopic cholecystectomy: A controlled trial study. Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice, 39, 101153.
• Citrus aurantium inhalation exhibits an anxiolytic effect in patients.  From:  Pimenta, F. C. F., Alves, M. F., Pimenta, M. B. F., Melo, S. A. L., Almeida, A. A. F. D., Leite, J. R., … & Almeida, R. N. D. (2016). Anxiolytic Effect of Citrus aurantium L. on Patients with Chronic Myeloid Leukemia. Phytotherapy Research.
• In a double blind, randomized trial, anxiety was reduced among women awaiting a medical procedure after smelling a blend of vetiver, bergamot, and geranium aromas for ten minutes.  From: Wiebe, E. (2000). A randomized trial of aromatherapy to reduce anxiety before abortion. Effective Clinical Practice: ECP, 3(4), 166-169.
• In a small study with 13 pregnant women in their 28^th week of pregnancy, anxiety and anger were reduced, and parasympathetic measurements increased after 5 minutes of aromatherapy inhalation (compared to the control group).  Participants chose from three essential oils high in linalool and linalyl acetate: lavender, petitgrain, or bergamot.  From:  Igarashi, T. (2013). Physical and psychologic effects of aromatherapy inhalation on pregnant women: a randomized controlled trial. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 19(10), 805-810.
• Patients exposed to bergamot essential oil aromatherapy showed a greater reduction in preoperative anxiety than those in the control groups.  From:  Ni, C. H., Hou, W. H., Kao, C. C., Chang, M. L., Yu, L. F., Wu, C. C., & Chen, C. (2013). The anxiolytic effect of aromatherapy on patients awaiting ambulatory surgery: a randomized controlled trial. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2013.

• Aromatherapy with a diluted lavender and bergamot spray reduced pain, stress, depression and anxiety in a 4-week study of 84 older people with chronic pain.  From:  Tang, S. K., & Tse, M. Y. (2014). Aromatherapy: does it help to relieve pain, depression, anxiety, and stress in community-dwelling older persons? BioMed research international, 2014.

• Adolescents who received bergamot aromatherapy showed reduced stress.  From:  Seo, J. Y. (2009). The effects of aromatherapy on stress and stress responses in adolescents. Journal of Korean Academy of Nursing, 39(3), 357-365.

• Anxiety levels were reduced with Citrus bergamia inhalation.  From:  Watanabe, E., Kuchta, K., Kimura, M., Rauwald, H. W., Kamei, T., & Imanishi, J. (2015). Effects of bergamot (Citrus bergamia (Risso) Wright & Arn.) essential oil aromatherapy on mood states, parasympathetic nervous system activity, and salivary cortisol levels in 41 healthy females. Forschende Komplementärmedizin/Research in Complementary Medicine, 22(1), 43-49.

• In a study of 50 women who inhaled bergamot aroma for 50 minutes, they indicated an improved feeling of welll-being.  From:  Han, X., Gibson, J., Eggett, D. L., & Parker, T. L. (2017). Bergamot (Citrus bergamia) essential oil inhalation improves positive feelings in the waiting room of a mental health treatment center: A pilot study. Phytotherapy research, 31(5), 812-816.

• Teachers had reduced anxiety symptoms and were calmer after bergamot inhalation.  From:  Chang, K. M., & Shen, C. W. (2011). Aromatherapy benefits autonomic nervous system regulation for elementary school faculty in Taiwan. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2011.

• Citrus bergamia, Risso reduces stress and anxiety in human studies.  From:  Bagetta, G., Morrone, L. A., Rombolà, L., Amantea, D., Russo, R., Berliocchi, L., … & Corasaniti, M. T. (2010). Neuropharmacology of the essential oil of bergamot. Fitoterapia, 81(6), 453-461.

• A hand massage with bergamot, lavender, and frankincense reduced pain, anxiety, and depression in hospice patients.  From:  Chang, S. Y. (2008). Effects of aroma hand massage on pain, state anxiety and depression in hospice patients with terminal cancer. Journal of Korean Academy of Nursing, 38(4), 493-502.

• Bergamot aromatherapy reduced stress in school teachers.  From:  Liu, S. H., Lin, T. H., & Chang, K. M. (2013). The physical effects of aromatherapy in alleviating work-related stress on elementary school teachers in taiwan. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2013.

• Citrus aurantium reduced anxiety in mice.  From:  de Moraes Pultrini, A., Galindo, L. A., & Costa, M. (2006). Effects of the essential oil from Citrus aurantium L. in experimental anxiety models in mice. Life Sciences, 78(15), 1720-1725.

• Citrus aurantium essential oil can reduce the anxiety in mice.  From:  Saketi, S., Bananej, M., & Jahromy, M. H. (2014). Effect of Citrus aurantium L. essential oil and its interaction with fluoxetine on anxiety in male mice. Journal of Behavioral and Brain Science, 2014.

• Citrus aurantium essential oil can reduce anxiety behaviors in male mice.  From:  Khosravi, M., Khakpour, S., Adibi, L., & Jahromy, M. H. (2014). A study of the effect of Citrus aurantium L. essential oil on anxiety and its interaction with GABAergic pathways in male mice. Journal of Behavioral and Brain Science, 4(10), 470.

• Bergamot essential oil stimulated glutamate release by transporter reversal or exocytosis in the rat hippocampus.  From:  Morrone, L. A., Rombola, L., Pelle, C., Corasaniti, M. T., Zappettini, S., Paudice, P., … & Bagetta, G. (2007). The essential oil of bergamot enhances the levels of amino acid neurotransmitters in the hippocampus of rat: implication of monoterpene hydrocarbons. Pharmacological research, 55(4), 255-262.
• Citrus aurantium demonstrated anxiolytic results in mice.  From:   Costa, C., Cury, T. C., Cassettari, B., Takahira, R. K., Flório, J. C., & Costa, M. (2013). Citrus aurantium L. essential oil exhibits anxiolytic-like activity mediated by 5-HT 1A-receptors and reduces cholesterol after repeated oral treatment. BMC complementary and alternative medicine, 13(1), 1.
• Citrus aurantium reduced anxiety and was a sedative in mice.  From:  Carvalho-Freitas, M. I. R., & Costa, M. (2002). Anxiolytic and sedative effects of extracts and essential oil from Citrus aurantium L. Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 25(12), 1629-1633.
• Citrus aurantium created anxiolytic-like behaviours by reducing the corticosterone response to stress in mice.  From:  Saiyudthong, S., & Marsden, C. A. (2011). Acute effects of bergamot oil on anxiety‐related behaviour and corticosterone level in rats. Phytotherapy research, 25(6), 858-862.
• Essential oils / herbs and their effect on human behavior was reviewed. St. John’s wort has shown to have an anxiolytic effect. Lavender has shown to decrease anxiety while improving sleep quality. Cannabis has a sedative effect and reduces anxiety. Bergamot has shown to improve relaxation. Olive oil has shown an anxiolytic effect. Black cummin has been both anxiolytic and anti-depressive. Valerian has shown to be a sedative that helps induce sleep. From: Castillo, M. A., Carrero, Y., Urdaneta, K. E., Renouf, M., Lubin, C., Nola, M., & Semprún-Hernández, N. (2018). ESSENTIAL OILS AS MODIFIERS OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR. Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems, 21(1).

SEDATIVE

• A blend of lavender and bergamot essential oils had a relaxing effect in humans. From:  Hongratanaworakit, T. (2011). Aroma-therapeutic effects of massage blended essential oils on humans. Natural product communications, 6(8), 1199-1204.
• Listening to soft music and inhaling Citrus bergamia essential oil induced relaxation.  From:  Peng, S. M., Koo, M., & Yu, Z. R. (2009). Effects of music and essential oil inhalation on cardiac autonomic balance in healthy individuals. The Journal of alternative and complementary medicine, 15(1), 53-57.
• Inhalation therapy of lavender and bergamot was very effective in balancing the autonomic nervous system in patients.  From:  Kim, M. W., Yoo, Y. S., Cho, O. H., & Jo, S. J. (2009). The effects of aroma inhalation therapy on anxiety and heart rate variability in the patients undergoing urodynamic study. Journal of Korean Biological Nursing Science, 11(1), 32-41.
• Citrus aurantium inhalation relaxed rats.  From:  Leite, M. P., Fassin Jr, J., Baziloni, E. M., Almeida, R. N., Mattei, R., & Leite, J. R. (2008). Behavioral effects of essential oil of Citrus aurantium L. inhalation in rats. Revista Brasileira de Farmacognosia, 18, 661-666.
• Citrus aurantium reduced anxiety and was a sedative in mice.  From:  Carvalho-Freitas, M. I. R., & Costa, M. (2002). Anxiolytic and sedative effects of extracts and essential oil from Citrus aurantium L. Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 25(12), 1629-1633.

INSECTICIDAL / LARVICIDAL

• Citrus aurantium (bergamot) and Citrus paradisi (grapefruit) showed good larviciding effect against An. stephensi, the malaria vector.  From:  Sedaghat, M. M., Sanei-Dehkordi, A., Vatandoost, H., & Abai, M. R. (2016). Chemical Compositions of the Peel Essential Oil of Citrus aurantium and its Natural Larvicidal Activity against the Malaria Vector Anopheles stephensi (Diptera: Culicidae) in Comparison with Citrus paradisi. Journal of Arthropod-Borne Diseases.

SKIN / WOUND HEALING

• Citrus aurantium increased reactive oxygen species production in human polymorphonuclear leukocytes which could be useful in infections and tissue healing.  From:  Cosentino, M., Luini, A., Bombelli, R., Corasaniti, M. T., Bagetta, G., & Marino, F. (2014). The essential oil of bergamot stimulates reactive oxygen species production in human polymorphonuclear leukocytes. Phytotherapy Research, 28(8), 1232-1239.

• Nine essential oils were studied and showed potential to heal human skin cells in vitro.  They included: Citrus bergamia (bergamot), Coriandrum sativum (cilantro), Pelargonium graveolens (geranium), Helichrysum italicum (helichrysum), Pogostemon cablin (patchouli), Citrus aurantium (petitgrain), Santalum album (sandalwood), Nardostachys jatamansi (spikenard), and Cananga odorata (ylang ylang).  From:  Han, X., Beaumont, C., & Stevens, N. (2017). Chemical composition analysis and in vitro biological activities of ten essential oils in human skin cells. Biochimie Open, 5, 1-7.
• The extract from bergamot and boxthorn improved skin and  hair growth in mice.  From:  Shao, L. X. (2003). [Effects of the extract from bergamot and boxthorn on the delay of skin aging and hair growth in mice]. Zhongguo Zhong yao za zhi= Zhongguo zhongyao zazhi= China journal of Chinese materia medica, 28(8), 766-769.
• Citrus bergamia was effective in vitro and has potential in the use for topical treatment of dermatophytoses.  From:  Sanguinetti, M., Posteraro, B., Romano, L., Battaglia, F., Lopizzo, T., De Carolis, E., & Fadda, G. (2007). In vitro activity of Citrus bergamia (bergamot) oil against clinical isolates of dermatophytes. Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy, 59(2), 305-308.
• Bergamot was antifungal against multiple species of dermatophytes.  From:  Sanguinetti, M., Posteraro, B., Romano, L., Battaglia, F., Lopizzo, T., De Carolis, E., & Fadda, G. (2006). In vitro activity of Citrus bergamia (bergamot) oil against clinical isolates of dermatophytes. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 59(2), 305-308.

PAIN REDUCTION / ANTINOCICEPTIVE / ANALGESIC

• Essential oil of bergamot has antinociceptive and antiallodynic effects that could be used to treat chronic pain.  Linalool and linalyl acetate are key constituents.  From:  Rombolà, L., Amantea, D., Russo, R., Adornetto, A., Berliocchi, L., Tridico, L., … & Morrone, L. A. (2016). Rational Basis for the Use of Bergamot Essential Oil in Complementary Medicine to Treat Chronic Pain. Mini reviews in medicinal chemistry, 16(9), 721-728.

• Plantar subcutaneous injection of bergamot or linalool into a mouse paw reduced both the first and late phases of the formalin induced licking and biting responses.  From:  Katsuyama, S., Otowa, A., KAmio, S., Sato, K., Yagi, T., Kishikawa, Y., … & Nakamura, H. (2015). Effect of plantar subcutaneous administration of bergamot essential oil and linalool on formalin-induced nociceptive behavior in mice. Biomedical Research, 36(1), 47-54.

• Neuropathic pain was reduced by linalool and  bergamot in mice.  From:  Kuwahata, H., Komatsu, T., Katsuyama, S., Corasaniti, M. T., Bagetta, G., Sakurada, S., … & Takahama, K. (2013). Peripherally injected linalool and bergamot essential oil attenuate mechanical allodynia via inhibiting spinal ERK phosphorylation. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 103(4), 735-741.

• Combined administration of bergamot or linalool locally, and morphine may be effective to treat of clinical pain.  From:  Sakurada, T., Mizoguchi, H., Kuwahata, H., Katsuyama, S., Komatsu, T., Morrone, L. A., … & Sakurada, S. (2011). Intraplantar injection of bergamot essential oil induces peripheral antinociception mediated by opioid mechanism. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 97(3), 436-443.
• Aromatherapy with a diluted lavender and bergamot spray reduced pain, stress, depression and anxiety in a 4 week study of 84 older people with chronic pain.  From:  Tang, S. K., & Tse, M. Y. (2014). Aromatherapy: does it help to relieve pain, depression, anxiety, and stress in community-dwelling older persons?. BioMed research international, 2014.

• The essential oils of bergamot (Citrus bergamia, Risso) clary sage (Salvia sclarea), thyme (linalool chemotype of Thymus vulgaris), lavender (Lavandula hybrida reydovan and Lavandula angustifolia) had antinociceptive effects on the mouse hindpaw.  From:  Sakurada, T., Kuwahata, H., Katsuyama, S., Komatsu, T., Morrone, L. A., Corasaniti, M. T., … & Sakurada, S. (2009). Intraplantar Injection Of Bergamot Essential Oil Into The Mouse Hindpaw: Effects On Capsaicin‐Induced Nociceptive Behaviors. International Review of Neurobiology, 85, 237-248.

ANTI-INFLAMMATORY

• Bergamot oil was anti-inflammatory in a rat paw oedema study.  From:  Karaca, M., Özbek, H., Him, A., Tütüncü, M., Akkan, H. A., & Kaplanoğlu, V. (2009). Investigation of anti-inflammatory activity of bergamot oil.
• Anti-inflammatory activities of bergamot were reviewed.  From: Ferlazzo, N., Cirmi, S., Calapai, G., Ventura-Spagnolo, E., Gangemi, S., & Navarra, M. (2016). Anti-inflammatory activity of Citrus bergamia derivatives: where do we stand?. Molecules, 21(10), 1273.
• Bergamot had a natural antioxidant/anti-inflammatory effect on human endothelial cells.  From:  Trombetta, D., Cimino, F., Cristani, M., Mandalari, G., Saija, A., Ginestra, G., … & Narbad, A. (2010). In vitro protective effects of two extracts from bergamot peels on human endothelial cells exposed to tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 58(14), 8430-8436
• Mice with inflammatory bowel disease showed an anti-inflammatory effect with taking a bergamot supplement.  From:  Impellizzeri, D., Bruschetta, G., Di Paola, R., Ahmad, A., Campolo, M., Cuzzocrea, S., … & Navarra, M. (2015). The anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects of bergamot juice extract (BJe) in an experimental model of inflammatory bowel disease. Clinical Nutrition, 34(6), 1146-1154.
• Bergamot juice demonstrated anti-inflammatory action in vitro.  From:  Risitano, R., Currò, M., Cirmi, S., Ferlazzo, N., Campiglia, P., Caccamo, D., … & Navarra, M. (2014). Flavonoid fraction of Bergamot juice reduces LPS-induced inflammatory response through SIRT1-mediated NF-κB inhibition in THP-1 monocytes. PLoS One, 9(9), e107431.

​ANTI-ARTHRITIS

• Bergamot showed antioxidant activity that may be used to treat rheumatoid arthritis.  From:  Marino, A., Paterniti, I., Cordaro, M., Morabito, R., Campolo, M., Navarra, M., … & Cuzzocrea, S. (2015). Role of natural antioxidants and potential use of bergamot in treating rheumatoid arthritis. PharmaNutrition, 3(2), 53-59.

ORAL HEALTH

• Both Citrus limonum and Citrus aurantium essential oils are effective in controlling microbes in the oral cavity.  From:  Oliveira, S. A. C., Zambrana, J. R. M., Di Iorio, F. B. R., Pereira, C. A., & Jorge, A. O. C. (2014). The antimicrobial effects of Citrus limonum and Citrus aurantium essential oils on multi-species biofilms. Brazilian oral research, 28(1), 22-27.

PRESERVATIVE

• Bergamot was antifungal against Penicillium italicum.  From:  Sánchez-González, L., Cháfer, M., Chiralt, A., & González-Martínez, C. (2010). Physical properties of edible chitosan films containing bergamot essential oil and their inhibitory action on Penicillium italicum. Carbohydrate Polymers, 82(2), 277-283.
• Citrus oils of orange, lemon, and bergamot may be an effective and safe antimicrobial additive in food.  From:  Fisher, K., & Phillips, C. (2008). Potential antimicrobial uses of essential oils in food: is citrus the answer?. Trends in food science & technology, 19(3), 156-164.
• Polysaccharides from Citrus aurantium had therapeutic applications in medical and food industries related to their antioxidant activities.  From:  Wang, Q. H., Shu, Z. P., Xu, B. Q., Xing, N., Jiao, W. J., Yang, B. Y., & Kuang, H. X. (2014). Structural characterization and antioxidant activities of polysaccharides from Citrus aurantium L. International journal of biological macromolecules, 67, 112-123.
• Citrus essential oils showed a variety of effectiveness against foodborne pathogens in vitro. From: Restuccia, C., Conti, G. O., Zuccarello, P., Parafati, L., Cristaldi, A., & Ferrante, M. (2019). Efficacy of different citrus essential oils to inhibit the growth and B1 aflatoxin biosynthesis of Aspergillus flavus. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 1-10.

By: Kathy Sadowski

Last Updated: 10/17/22