Clove (Syzgium aromaticum) Research

Latin Name: Syzgium aromaticum

Family: Myrtaceae

Clove has been used in dentistry as an analgesic and antibacterial.  It also has insecticidal, antioxidant, anti-diabetic, and  anti-inflammatory activities.  Of all essential oils, clove shows one of the highest amounts of antibacterial activity against multiple microbe species.

RESEARCH

The listings of research below represent a compilation of scientific articles found on the species, with a very brief overview description of each article/study.  Research found is catalogued by therapeutic action.  This categorized compilation of research articles does not necessarily imply that there are adequate results to demonstrate safe and/or effective human use

GENERAL

• Cortés-Rojas, D. F., de Souza, C. R. F., & Oliveira, W. P. (2014). Clove (Syzygium aromaticum): a precious spice. Asian Pacific journal of tropical biomedicine, 4(2), 90-96.
• Lis-Balchin, M.  (2006). Aromatherapy science, A guide for healthcare professionals.  Pharmaceutical Press:  London.
• Petersen, D. (2015). Aromatherapy materia medica.  Essential oil monographs.  American College of Healthcare Sciences.​
• This was a short review of the biological activity of Eugenia caryophyllata:  it has been effective against many microorganisms and parasites, including pathogenic bacteria, Herpes simplex and hepatitis C viruses. It shows antimicrobial, antioxidant, antifungal, antiviral, antiinflammatory, cytotoxic, insect repellent and anaesthetic properties.  From:  Chaieb, K., Hajlaoui, H., Zmantar, T., Kahla‐Nakbi, A. B., Rouabhia, M., Mahdouani, K., & Bakhrouf, A. (2007). The chemical composition and biological activity of clove essential oil, Eugenia caryophyllata (Syzigium aromaticum L. Myrtaceae): a short review. Phytotherapy research, 21(6), 501-506.
• Discussed are the potential therapeutic uses for clove essential oil including anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anesthetic, antinociceptive, and anticancer activities.  From: Haro-González, J. N., Castillo-Herrera, G. A., Martínez-Velázquez, M., & Espinosa-Andrews, H. (2021). Clove essential oil (Syzygium aromaticum L. Myrtaceae): Extraction, chemical composition, food applications, and essential bioactivity for human health. Molecules, 26(21), 6387.

SAFETY

• Clove essential oil contains toxic constituents; skin patch test is required with a potential for dermal and mucous membrane irritation and sensitization (Petersen, 2015).
• Clove oil and the eugenol constituent were found to be highly cytotoxic to human skin cells.  From:  Prashar, A., Locke, I. C., & Evans, C. S. (2006). Cytotoxicity of clove (Syzygium aromaticum) oil and its major components to human skin cells. Cell Proliferation, 39(4), 241-248.
• Clove oil is not for use during pregnancy, breastfeeding, young children, or for those with liver disease.
• Clove bud oil is more expensive and may be adultered with clove leaf or stem oil; look for a eugenol content of 82 – 88% (Lis-Balchin, 2006).
• Clove may not for those taking anti-coagulant medications, which may include aspirin (Lis-Balchin, 2006).
• Clove oil contains the phenol: eugenol, which can cause liver toxicity.  Don’t exceed dosage amount and duration and do not use with liver disease (Petersen, 2015).
• Clove oil may contain the toxic constituent methyleugenol.
• Cases of death and severe conditions have been reported with the internal/excessive use of clove oil, especially with children.
  • Janes, S. E., Price, C. S., & Thomas, D. (2005). Essential oil poisoning: N-acetylcysteine for eugenol-induced hepatic failure and analysis of a national database. European journal of pediatrics, 164(8), 520-522.
  • Lane, B. W., Ellenhorn, M. J., Hulbert, T. V., & McCarron, M. (1991). Clove oil ingestion in an infant. Human & experimental toxicology, 10(4), 291-294.
  • Hartnoll, G., Moore, D., & Douek, D. (1993). Near fatal ingestion of oil of cloves. Archives of disease in childhood, 69(3), 392-393.
  • Eisen, J. S., Koren, G., Juurlink, D. N., & Ng, V. L. (2004). N‐Acetylcysteine for the treatment of clove oil induced fulminant hepatic failure: Case report and review of the literature. Journal of Toxicology: Clinical Toxicology, 42(1), 89-92.

ANTIMICROBIAL / ANTIFUNGAL / ANTIBACTERIAL / ANTIVIRAL

• Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Syzygium aromaticum, and Cuminum cyminum essential oils showed in vitro activity against pathogenic microorganisms Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidis, Enterococcus faecalis, Streptococcus pyogenes, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Aeromonas hydrophila, Proteus mirabilis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Candida albicans. From: Condò, C., Anacarso, I., Sabia, C., Iseppi, R., Anfelli, I., Forti, L., … & Messi, P. (2018). Antimicrobial activity of spices essential oils and its effectiveness on mature biofilms of human pathogens. Natural product research, 1-8.
• The use of plant essential oils against antibiotic resistant microbes is discussed. Key essential oils include basil, cilantro, coriander, cinnamon, clove, curry, garlic, helichrysum, lavender, lemongrass, oregano, peppermint, and tea tree. From: Yang, S. K., Low, L. Y., Yap, P. S. X., Yusoff, K., Mai, C. W., Lai, K. S., & Lim, S. H. E. (2018). Plant-Derived Antimicrobials: Insights into Mitigation of Antimicrobial Resistance. Records of Natural Products, 12(4).
• The following essential oils were tested against a variety of microbes in a variety of environments:  cinnamon (Cinnamon zeylanicum), clove (Syzygium aromaticum), basil (Ocimum basillicum), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), dill (Anethum graveolens), and ginger (Zingiber officinalis).   From:  Lopez, P., Sanchez, C., Batlle, R., & Nerin, C. (2005). Solid-and vapor-phase antimicrobial activities of six essential oils: susceptibility of selected foodborne bacterial and fungal strains. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 53(17), 6939-6946.
• In a mega-analysis of over 500 studies on essential oil antimicrobial activity, spices and herbs of thyme, origanum, mint, cinnamon, salvia and clove had the strongest antimicrobial properties. From:  Kalemba, D., & Kunicka, A. (2003). Antibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oils. Current medicinal chemistry, 10(10), 813-829.
• Thyme, origanum, clove, and orange essential oils were the most inhibitory against foodborne bacteria and yeasts. Cumin, tea tree, and mint also provided inhibition.  From:  Irkin, R., & Korukluoglu, M. (2009). Growth inhibition of pathogenic bacteria and some yeasts by selected essential oils and survival of L. monocytogenes and C. albicans in apple–carrot juice. Foodborne pathogens and disease, 6(3), 387-394.
• Essential oils of cinnamon, peppermint, basil, origanum, clove, and thyme caused a total inhibition of fungal development on maize kernels without a phytotoxic effect.  From:  Montes-Belmont, R., & Carvajal, M. (1998). Control of Aspergillus flavus in maize with plant essential oils and their components. Journal of Food Protection®, 61(5), 616-619.
• Sixty-five bacteria were tested against 13 essential oils.  Cinnamon bark, cinnamon leaf, oregano, thyme, ajowan, and clove showed strong antibacterial activity.  From:  Mayaud, L., Carricajo, A., Zhiri, A., & Aubert, G. (2008). Comparison of bacteriostatic and bactericidal activity of 13 essential oils against strains with varying sensitivity to antibiotics. Letters in applied microbiology, 47(3), 167-173.
• Among 49 essential oils tested, palmarosa (Cymbopogon martini), red thyme (Thymus zygis), cinnamon leaf (Cinnamomum zeylanicum), and clove buds (Eugenia caryophyllata) were the most antifungal activity against Botrytis cinerea.  From:  Wilson, C. L., Solar, J. M., El Ghaouth, A., & Wisniewski, M. E. (1997). Rapid evaluation of plant extracts and essential oils for antifungal activity against Botrytis cinerea. Plant disease, 81(2), 204-210.
• Clove and oregano oils were antifungal against the yeast: Saccharomyces cerevisiae.  From:  Chami, F., Chami, N., Bennis, S., Bouchikhi, T., & Remmal, A. (2005). Oregano and clove essential oils induce surface alteration of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Phytotherapy Research, 19(5), 405-408.
• The following essential oils and their constituents in order of effectiveness were active against pathogens in apple juice:  against E. coli: carvacrol, oregano oil, geraniol, eugenol, cinnamon leaf oil, citral, clove bud oil, lemongrass oil, cinnamon bark oil, and lemon oil, and against S. enterica:  melissa oil, carvacrol, oregano oil, terpeineol, geraniol, lemon oil, citral, lemongrass oil, cinnamon leaf oil, and linalool. From:  Friedman, M., Henika, P. R., Levin, C. E., & Mandrell, R. E. (2004). Antibacterial activities of plant essential oils and their components against Escherichia coli O157: H7 and Salmonella enterica in apple juice. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 52(19), 6042-6048.
• Clove, kaffir lime peels, cardamom, coriander, and cumin showed various antibacterial activities. From:  Nanasombat, S., & Lohasupthawee, P. (2005). Antibacterial activity of crude ethanolic extracts and essential oils of spices against Salmonellae and other enterobacteria. Kmitl Sci. Tech. J, 5(3), 527-538.
• The antimicrobial activity of twenty-seven essential oils were tested, especially against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.  The S. aureus strains were highly susceptible to Piper nigrum (black pepper) and Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree).  The following were effective against E. coli:Copaifera officinalis, Cinnamomum cassia (cinnamon), and Syzygium aromaticum (clove). Clove was also strong against P. aeruginosa.  From:  Murbach Teles Andrade, B. F., Nunes Barbosa, L., da Silva Probst, I., & Fernandes Júnior, A. (2014). Antimicrobial activity of essential oils. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 26(1), 34-40.
• Clove was antimicrobial against oral pathogens.  From:  Cai, L., & Wu, C. D. (1996). Compounds from Syzygium aromaticum possessing growth inhibitory activity against oral pathogens. Journal of Natural Products, 59(10), 987-990.
• Cinnamon bark and clove bud oil were among the natural substances effective against oral bacteria.  From:  Saeki, Y., Ito, Y., Shibata, M., Sato, Y., Okuda, K., & Takazoe, I. (1989). Antimicrobial action of natural substances on oral bacteria. The Bulletin of Tokyo Dental College, 30(3), 129-135.
• Cloves, thyme, oregano, allspice, basil, rosemary, and marjoram showed antimicrobial effects on Shigella.  From:  Bagamboula, C. F., Uyttendaele, M., & Debevere, J. (2003). Antimicrobial effect of spices and herbs on Shigella sonnei and Shigella flexneri. Journal of Food Protection®, 66(4), 668-673.
• Complete inhibition of mycelial growth and aflatoxin production by the fungus Aspergillus parasticus were achieved by these oils:  thyme, cumin, clove, caraway, rosemary, and sage. From:  Farag, R. S., Daw, Z. Y., & Abo‐Raya, S. H. (1989). Influence of some spice essential oils on Aspergillus parasiticus growth and production of aflatoxins in a synthetic medium. Journal of Food Science, 54(1), 74-76.
• Pimpinella anisum (anise), Pëumus boldus (boldus), Hedeoma multiflora (mountain thyme), Syzygium aromaticum (clove), and Lippia turbinate (poleo) essential oils demonstrated antifungal activity against Aspergillus section Flavi in sterile maize grain.  From:  Bluma, R. V., & Etcheverry, M. G. (2008). Application of essential oils in maize grain: Impact on Aspergillus section Flavi growth parameters and aflatoxin accumulation. Food Microbiology, 25(2), 324-334.
• Antimicrobial activities of lavender, thyme, peppermint, cajeput, cinnamon, clove, eucalyptus, sage, and tea tree were summarized.  From:  Wińska, K., Mączka, W., Łyczko, J., Grabarczyk, M., Czubaszek, A., & Szumny, A. (2019). Essential Oils as Antimicrobial Agents—Myth or Real Alternative?. Molecules, 24(11), 2130.
• Piper nigrum (black pepper), Syzygium aromaticum (clove), Pelargonium graveolens (geranium), Myristica fragrans (nutmeg), Origanum vulgare (oregano),  and Thymus vulgaris (thyme) were assessed for antibacterial activity against 25 different genera of bacteria.  From:  Dorman, H. J. D., & Deans, S. G. (2000). Antimicrobial agents from plants: antibacterial activity of plant volatile oils. Journal of applied microbiology, 88(2), 308-316.
• Thirty plant oils were tested and eucalyptus, peppermint, ginger grass and clove showed strong antifungal activity agaisnt candida albicans.  From:  Agarwal, V., Lal, P., & Pruthi, V. (2008). Prevention of Candida albicans biofilm by plant oils. Mycopathologia, 165(1), 13-19.
• Oregano, thyme, cinnamon bark, lemongrass, clove, palmarose, peppermint, lavender, geranium, Bourbon, and tea tree reduced fungus in heated footbath water.  From:  Inouye, S., Uchida, K., Nishiyama, Y., Hasumi, Y., Yamaguchi, H., & Abe, S. (2007). Combined effect of heat, essential oils and salt on the fungicidal activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes in foot bath. Nippon Ishinkin Gakkai Zasshi, 48(1), 27-36.
• Salad preservation was lengthened with the essential oils ofthyme verbena, thyme, oregano, ajowan, tea tree, clove, sage, and rosemary.  From:  Molinos, A. C., Abriouel, H., López, R. L., Omar, N. B., Valdivia, E., & Gálvez, A. (2009). Enhanced bactericidal activity of enterocin AS-48 in combination with essential oils, natural bioactive compounds and chemical preservatives against Listeria monocytogenes in ready-to-eat salad. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 47(9), 2216-2223.
• Cinnamon, oregano, savory, thyme, clove, lemongrass, cajuput, and allspice showed antibacterial activity against meat spoilage bacteria.  From:  Oussalah, M., Caillet, S., Saucier, L., & Lacroix, M. (2006). Antimicrobial effects of selected plant essential oils on the growth of a Pseudomonas putida strain isolated from meat. Meat science, 73(2), 236-244.
• Basil, clove, garlic, horseradish, marjoram, oregano, rosemary, and thyme exhibited antibacterial activities on a foodborne pathogen, Vibrio parahaemolyticus.  From:  Yano, Y., Satomi, M., & Oikawa, H. (2006). Antimicrobial effect of spices and herbs on Vibrio parahaemolyticus. International journal of food microbiology, 111(1), 6-11.
• Cinnamon and clove essential oils were effective antifungal treatments against post harvest fungal diseases in bananas.  From:  Ranasinghe, L., Jayawardena, B., & Abeywickrama, K. (2002). Fungicidal activity of essential oils of Cinnamomum zeylanicum (L.) and Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr et LM Perry against crown rot and anthracnose pathogens isolated from banana. Letters in Applied Microbiology, 35(3), 208-211.
• Thymus vulgaris (thyme), Ocimum gratissimum (basil) and Eugenia caryophyllata (clove) were particularly antibacterial with a large spectra action, and Melaleuca viridiflora (cajuput) had also a high inhibitory effect especially on Gram positive bacteria.  From:  Ramanoelina, A. R., Terrom, G. P., Bianchini, J. P., & Coulanges, P. (1986). [Antibacterial action of essential oils extracted from Madagascar plants]. Archives de l’Institut Pasteur de Madagascar, 53(1), 217-226.
• Antibacterial abilities of 96 essential oils and their constituents were assessed. Marigold, ginger, jasmine, patchouli, gardenia, cedarwood, carrot seed, celery seed, mugwort, spikenard, and orange bitter oils along with the constituents of cinnamaldehyde, estragole, carvacrol, benzaldehyde, citral, thymol, eugenol, perillaldehyde, carvone R, and geranyl acetate were strongest against C. jejuni.  Those most active against E. coli were oregano, thyme, cinnamon, palmarosa, bay leaf, clove bud, lemon grass, and allspice oils and the constituents: carvacrol, cinnamaldehyde, thymol, eugenol, salicylaldehyde, geraniol, isoeugenol, citral, perillaldehyde, and estragole.  Those most active against L. monocytogenes were gardenia, cedarwood, bay leaf, clove bud, oregano, cinnamon, allspice, thyme, and patchouli and the constituents of cinnamaldehyde, eugenol, thymol, carvacrol, citral, geraniol, perillaldehyde, carvone S, estragole, and salicylaldehyde.  Those most active against S. enterica were thyme, oregano, cinnamon, clove bud, allspice, bay leaf, palmarosa, and marjoram oils as well as thymol, cinnamaldehyde, carvacrol, eugenol, salicylaldehyde, geraniol, isoeugenol, terpineol, perillaldehyde, and estragole.  From:  Friedman, M., Henika, P. R., & Mandrell, R. E. (2002). Bactericidal activities of plant essential oils and some of their isolated constituents against Campylobacter jejuni, Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, and Salmonella enterica. Journal of Food Protection®, 65(10), 1545-1560.
• Bay, cinnamon, grapefruit, lemongrass, thyme, clary sage, wintergreen, clove, allspice, and camphor essential oils showed varying degrees of inhibition against MRSA and MSSA bacterial samples from hospital patients. From:  Sharma, P. U. J. A., Mack, J. P., & Rojtman, A. (2013). Ten highly effective essential oils inhibit growth of methicillin resistant staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and methicillin sensitive staphylococcus aureus (MSSA). Int. J. Pharm. Pharmacol, 5(1), 52-54.
• Chenopodium ambrosioides, Cymbopogon martinii (palmarosa), Cymbopogon nardus (citronella), Syzygium aromaticum (clove), and Pimenta racemosa (bay) were the most antifungal  on the eight tested strains.  From:  Delespaul, Q., de Billerbeck, V. G., Roques, C. G., Michel, G., Marquier-Viñuales, C., & Bessière, J. M. (2000). The antifungal activity of essential oils as determined by different screening methods. Journal of essential oil research, 12(2), 256-266.
• Cinnamon, lemongrass, cedarwood, clove and eucalyptus oils exhibit antibacterial property against S. mutans.  From:  Chaudhari, L. K. D., Jawale, B. A., Sharma, S., Kumar, H. S. M., & Kulkarni, P. A. (2012). Antimicrobial activity of commercially available essential oils against Streptococcus mutans. The Journal of Contemporary Dental Practice, 13(1), 71-74.
• Cinnamon, clove, and thyme oils inhibited the bacteria: Aeromonas hydrophila.  From:  Fabio, A., Corona, A., Forte, E., & Quaglio, P. (2003). Inhibitory activity of spices and essential oils on psychrotrophic bacteria. The new microbiologica, 26(1), 115-120.
• Related to essential oils active against microbes affecting the outer ear, clove and chamomile were active against 3 strains of S. aureus and the Candida strains; mexican mint was effective against seven of the S. aureus strains, and rue was effective against the Candida strains.  From:  Nogueira, J. C. R., Diniz, M. D. F. M., & Lima, E. O. (2008). In vitro antimicrobial activity of plants in Acute Otitis Externa. Brazilian journal of otorhinolaryngology, 74(1), 118-124.  Link:  http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1808-8694(15)30761-8.
• Thyme, cinnamon, bay, clove, almond (bitter), lovage, pimento, marjoram, angelica and nutmeg, and geranium showed strong inhibitory action against multiple bacteria.  From:  Deans, S. G., & Ritchie, G. (1987). Antibacterial properties of plant essential oils. International journal of food microbiology, 5(2), 165-180.
• Out of 21 oils tested, cinnamon, clove, geranium, lemon, lime, orange and rosemary exhibited the strongest activity against the tested bacteria. From:  Prabuseenivasan, S., Jayakumar, M., & Ignacimuthu, S. (2006). In vitro antibacterial activity of some plant essential oils. BMC complementary and alternative medicine, 6(1), 1.
• Films with allspice, cinnamon, or clove bud oils were active against 3 foodborne pathogens.   From:  Du, W. X., Olsen, C. W., Avena‐Bustillos, R. J., McHugh, T. H., Levin, C. E., & Friedman, M. (2009). Effects of allspice, cinnamon, and clove bud essential oils in edible apple films on physical properties and antimicrobial activities. Journal of Food Science, 74(7), M372-M378.
• The high fungistatic effects of clove and peppermint oils may be useful for treating skin fungi.  From:  El-Naghy, M. A., Maghazy, S. N., Fadl-Allah, E. M., & El-Gendy, Z. K. (1992). Fungistatic action of natural oils and fatty acids on dermatophytic and saprophytic fungi. Zentralblatt für Mikrobiologie, 147(3), 214-220.
• Clove oil and eugenol have considerable antifungal activity.  From:  Pinto, E., Vale-Silva, L., Cavaleiro, C., & Salgueiro, L. (2009). Antifungal activity of the clove essential oil from Syzygium aromaticum on Candida, Aspergillus and dermatophyte species. Journal of medical microbiology, 58(11), 1454-1462.
• Clove oil showed strong antibacterial activity against multiple bacteria.  From:  Saeed, S., & Tariq, P. (2008). In vitro antibacterial activity of clove against Gram negative bacteria. Pakistan J Botany, 40(5), 2157-2160.
• The constituents of eugenol, carvacrol, thymol, p-cymene and γ-terpinene were effective against oral bacteria.  From:  Miladi, H., Zmantar, T., Kouidhi, B., Al Qurashi, Y. M. A., Bakhrouf, A., Chaabouni, Y., … & Chaieb, K. (2017). Synergistic effect of eugenol, carvacrol, thymol, p-cymene and γ-terpinene on inhibition of drug resistance and biofilm formation of oral bacteria. Microbial pathogenesis, 112, 156-163.
• Tested essential oils showed antifungal activity against tested fungi.  From:  Gucwa, K., Milewski, S., Dymerski, T., & Szweda, P. (2018). Investigation of the Antifungal Activity and Mode of Action of Thymus vulgaris, Citrus limonum, Pelargonium graveolens, Cinnamomum cassia, Ocimum basilicum, and Eugenia caryophyllus Essential Oils. Molecules, 23(5), 1116.
• Cinnamon, lemon, basil, thyme, geranium, and clove showed high antifungal activity against Candida ssp. in vitro.  From:  Szweda, P., Gucwa, K., Kurzyk, E., Romanowska, E., Dzierżanowska-Fangrat, K., Jurek, A. Z., … & Milewski, S. (2015). Essential oils, silver nanoparticles and propolis as alternative agents against fluconazole resistant Candida albicans, Candida glabrata and Candida krusei clinical isolates. Indian journal of microbiology, 55(2), 175-183.
• Ethenol extracts from Syzygium aromaticum, Allium sativum, Curcuma longa, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Ocimum sanctum, Piper nigrum, Azadirachta indica, Centella asiatica, and Zingiber officinale showed antimicrobial activity against most tested oral microbes. From: Gauniyal, P., & Teotia, U. V. S. (2014). Phytochemical screening and antimicrobial activity of some medicinal plants against oral flora. Asian Pac J Health Sci, 1(3), 255-63.
• Thirty essential oils were tested against pathogenic plant bacteria. Ceylon cinnamon (leaf and bark), oregano, clove bud, palmarosa, basil, peppermint, rosemary, blue gum, camphor, lemongrass, aniseed, ylang ylang, silver fir, lemon, dwarf mountain pine, bay laurel, scots pine, black cumin, Indian frankincense, bergamot orange, common juniper, bitter orange, and neem showed varying degrees of reaction.  From: Popović, T., Milićević, Z., Oro, V., Kostić, I., Radović, V., Jelušić, A., & Krnjajić, S. (2018). A preliminary study of antibacterial activity of thirty essential oils against several important plant pathogenic bacteria. Pesticidi i fitomedicina, 33(3-4), 185-195.
• Clove, cajeput, tea tree, naiouli, and eucalyptus showed varying degrees of activity against Penicillium commune. From: Tančinová, D., Foltinová, D., Mašková, Z., Štefániková, J., & Árvay, J. (2019). Effect of essential oils of Myrtaceae plants on the Penicillium commune. Potravinarstvo Slovak Journal of Food Sciences, 13(1), 604-613.
• The following essential oils and blends showed antifungal action against Trichophyton interdigitale when applied to cotton: oregano, cinnamon, and the combination of origanum/clove/orange and clove/lavender/cinnamon. This may be useful in making footwear to prevent foot fungus. From:   Berechet, M. D., Chirilă, C., & Deselnicu, V. (2016). Antifungal Activity of Some Essential Oils on Cotton Fabrics. In International Conference on Advanced Materials and Systems (ICAMS) (pp. 197-202). The National Research & Development Institute for Textiles and Leather-INCDTP.
• Ten minutes of exposure of vapors from essential oils Citrus bergamia, Eucalyptus globulus, and the constituents citronellol and eugenol were very active against the influenza virus. Vapors of Pelargonium graveolens, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, and Cymbopogon flexuosus were very active with 30 minutes of exposure. Further, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Citrus bergamia, Cymbopogon flexuosus and Thymus vulgaris liquid essential oils displayed 100% inhibitory activity at a 3.1 µL/mL concentration. From: Vimalanathan, S., & Hudson, J. (2014). Anti-influenza virus activity of essential oils and vapors. American Journal of Essential Oils and Natural Products, 2(1), 47-53.
• Clove bud essential oil and its eugenol constituent reduced autophagy induction of tested strains of the flu. From: Dai, J. P., Zhao, X. F., Zeng, J., Wan, Q. Y., Yang, J. C., Li, W. Z., … & Li, K. S. (2013). Drug screening for autophagy inhibitors based on the dissociation of Beclin1-Bcl2 complex using BiFC technique and mechanism of eugenol on anti-influenza A virus activity. PloS one, 8(4).
• Blends with Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Daucus carota, Eucalyptus globulus, Rosmarinus officinalis, Syzygium aromaticum, and Origanum vulgare showed in vitro antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral activities against antibiotic resistant pathogens, candida strains, and both the H1N1 and HSV1 viruses. From: Brochot, A., Guilbot, A., Haddioui, L., & Roques, C. (2017). Antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral effects of three essential oil blends. MicrobiologyOpen, 6(4), e00459.
• A blend of cinnamon bark, clove bud, sweet orange, eucalyptus, and rosemary essential oils reduced flu virus activity in vitro. From: Wu, S., Patel, K. B., Booth, L. J., Metcalf, J. P., Lin, H. K., & Wu, W. (2010). Protective essential oil attenuates influenza virus infection: an in vitro study in MDCK cells. BMC complementary and alternative medicine, 10(1), 69.

ANTI-PARASITIC

• Clove, basil, and yarrow were effective against the parasite T. cruzi that feeds on blood and lymph.  From:  Santoro, G. F., Cardoso, M. G., Guimarães, L. G. L., Mendonça, L. Z., & Soares, M. J. (2007). Trypanosoma cruzi: activity of essential oils from Achillea millefolium L., Syzygium aromaticum L. and Ocimum basilicum L. on epimastigotes and trypomastigotes. Experimental parasitology, 116(3), 283-290.
• Eugenol and S. aromaticum essential oil showed anti-giardia parasite activity.  From:  Machado, M., Dinis, A. M., Salgueiro, L., Custódio, J. B., Cavaleiro, C., & Sousa, M. C. (2011). Anti-Giardia activity of Syzygium aromaticum essential oil and eugenol: effects on growth, viability, adherence and ultrastructure. Experimental parasitology, 127(4), 732-739.

INSECTICIDAL / PESTICIDAL / REPELLENT

• Manuka, clove, and oregano were larvicidal against a mosquitoe species.  From:  Muturi, E. J., Ramirez, J. L., Doll, K. M., & Bowman, M. J. (2017). Combined toxicity of three essential oils against Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) larvae. Journal of medical entomology, 54(6), 1684-1691.
• Cymbopogon nardus (citronella), Pogostemon cablin (patchouli), Syzygium aromaticum (clove) and Zanthoxylum limonella (prickly ash) were the most effective and provided 2 h of complete repellency against the mosquito Aedes aegypti.  From:  Trongtokit, Y., Rongsriyam, Y., Komalamisra, N., & Apiwathnasorn, C. (2005). Comparative repellency of 38 essential oils against mosquito bites. Phytotherapy Research, 19(4), 303-309.
• The study showed the following as possible termite fumigants:  Melaleuca dissitiflora, Melaleuca uncinata, Eucalyptus citriodora, Eucalyptus polybractea, Eucalyptus radiata, Eucalyptus dives, Eucalyptus globulus, Orixa japonica, Cinnamomum cassia, Allium cepa, Illicium verum, Evodia officinalis, Schizonepeta tenuifolia, Cacalia roborowskii, Juniperus chinensis var. horizontalis, Juniperus chinensis var. kaizuka, clove bud, and garlic as well as the constituents of Diallyl trisulfide was the most toxic, followed by diallyl disulfide, eugenol, diallyl sulfide, and β-caryophyllene.  From: Park, I. K., & Shin, S. C. (2005). Fumigant activity of plant essential oils and components from garlic (Allium sativum) and clove bud (Eugenia caryophyllata) oils against the Japanese termite (Reticulitermes speratus Kolbe). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 53(11), 4388-4392.
• Pinus sylvestris (pine) and Syzygium aromaticum (clove) showed larvicidal potential against Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus.  From:  Fayemiwo, K. A., Adeleke, M. A., Okoro, O. P., Awojide, S. H., & Awoniyi, I. O. (2014). Larvicidal efficacies and chemical composition of essential oils of Pinus sylvestris and Syzygium aromaticum against mosquitoes. Asian Pacific journal of tropical biomedicine, 4(1), 30-34.
• Of eight essential oils tested against termites, vetiver was the most effective repellent because of its long-lasting activity, and clove bud was the most toxic, killing 100%.  From:  Zhu, B. C., Henderson, G., Chen, F., Fei, H., & Laine, R. A. (2001). Evaluation of vetiver oil and seven insect-active essential oils against the Formosan subterranean termite. Journal of chemical ecology, 27(8), 1617-1625.
• Against head lice, eucalyptus, marjoram, pennyroyal, and rosemary oils beat  δ-phenothrin and pyrethrum and activity of cade, cardamone ceylon, clove bud, myrtle, rosewood, and sage oils were comparable with the test insecticides.  From:  Yang, Y. C., Lee, H. S., Clark, J. M., & Ahn, Y. J. (2004). Insecticidal activity of plant essential oils against Pediculus humanus capitis (Anoplura: Pediculidae). Journal of Medical Entomology, 41(4), 699-704.
• Of 53 tested plant oils, bay, caraway seed, clove leaf, lemon eucalyptus, lime, pennyroyal, peppermint, rosewood, spearmint, and tea tree oils were highly effective against the greenhouse whitefly. From:  Choi, W. I., Lee, E. H., Choi, B. R., Park, H. M., & Ahn, Y. J. (2003). Toxicity of plant essential oils to Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae). Journal of Economic Entomology, 96(5), 1479-1484.
• Against the red mite, the following oils were acaricidal:  bay, cade, cinnamon, clove bud, coriander, horseradish, lime, mustard, pennyroyal, pimento berry, spearmint, thyme red and thyme white oils.  From:  Kim, S. I., Yi, J. H., Tak, J. H., & Ahn, Y. J. (2004). Acaricidal activity of plant essential oils against Dermanyssus gallinae (Acari: Dermanyssidae). Veterinary parasitology, 120(4), 297-304.
• The repellency of Austrailian plants of the Myrtaceae family is reviewed. From: Webb, C. E. (2014). Insect repellents derived from Australian plants and implications for public health messages. Insect repellents handbook, 213.

ANTI-ALLERGY

• A blend including extracts of cinnamon, patchouli, and clove was effective against house dust mites.  From:  Wu, H. Q., Li, J., He, Z. D., & Liu, Z. G. (2010). Acaricidal activities of traditional Chinese medicine against the house dust mite, Dermatophagoides farinae. Parasitology, 137(6), 975-983.

ANTIOXIDANT

• The following dried herbs tested contained high amounts of antioxidant content:  oregano, sage, peppermint, thyme, lemon balm, clove, allspice, cinnamon, and a few additional Chinese medicinal herbs.   From:  Dragland, S., Senoo, H., Wake, K., Holte, K., & Blomhoff, R. (2003). Several culinary and medicinal herbs are important sources of dietary antioxidants. The Journal of nutrition, 133(5), 1286-1290.
• 423 essential oils from 48 different botanical families were evaluated for their antioxidant activities as free radical scavenging agents.  Results identified oils of the botanical families Lamiaceae and Myrtaceae as the most effective antioxidants, with thymol, eugenol, and carvacrol being the major constituents. From:  Anthony, K. P., Deolu‐Sobogun, S. A., & Saleh, M. A. (2012). Comprehensive assessment of antioxidant activity of essential oils. Journal of food science, 77(8), C839-C843.
• A highly positive linear relationship between antioxidant capacity and total phenolic content exists with major types of phenolic constituents from spice extracts being phenolic acids, phenolic diterpenes, flavonoids, and volatile oils. Rosmarinic acid was the dominant phenolic compound and the spices and related families with the highest antioxidant capacity were clove in the Myrtaceae, cinnamon in the Lauraceae, and oregano in the Labiatae.  From:  Shan, B., Cai, Y. Z., Sun, M., & Corke, H. (2005). Antioxidant capacity of 26 spice extracts and characterization of their phenolic constituents. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 53(20), 7749-7759.
• N. sativa and S. aromaticum were antioxidant when fed to rats, providing protection against aflatoxicosis.  From:  Abdel-Wahhab, M. A., & Aly, S. E. (2005). Antioxidant property of Nigella sativa (black cumin) and Syzygium aromaticum (clove) in rats during aflatoxicosis. Journal of Applied Toxicology, 25(3), 218-223.
• Clove bud extract and its major aroma components, eugenol and eugenyl acetate demonstrated antioxidant activity.  From:  Lee, K. G., & Shibamoto, T. (2001). Antioxidant property of aroma extract isolated from clove buds [Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. et Perry]. Food Chemistry, 74(4), 443-448.
• Of 25 essential oils tested, thyme and clove showed the highest antioxidant activity; indicated were their thymol and eugenol components..  Cinnamon, basil, bergamot, eucalyptus, chamomile, bitter orange, and aloe vera were also effective.  From:  Wei, A., & Shibamoto, T. (2010). Antioxidant/lipoxygenase inhibitory activities and chemical compositions of selected essential oils. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 58(12), 7218-7225.
• Clove and nutmeg antioxidant activity were assessed in vitro.  Dorman, H. J., Figueiredo, A. C., Barroso, J. G., & Deans, S. G. (2000). In vitro evaluation of antioxidant activity of essential oils and their components. Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 15(1), 12-16.

ORAL HEALTH

• In a study of 80 participants, an herbal toothpaste that included about 9 herbs, including clove, ginger, and black pepper, helped reduced gingivitis.  From:  Howshigan, J., Perera, K., Samita, S., & Rajapakse, P. S. (2015). The effects of an Ayurvedic medicinal toothpaste on clinical, microbiological and oral hygiene parameters in patients with chronic gingivitis: a double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled, parallel allocation clinical trial. Ceylon. Med. J, 126-132.
• Oral antibacterial effectiveness of essential oils is reviewed.  Oils include: Achillea ligustica (yarrow), Baccharis dracunculifolia, Croton cajucara (sacaca), Cryptomeria japonica (Japanese red cedar), Coriandrum sativum (coriander), Eugenia caryophyllata (clove), Lippia sidoides, Ocimum americanum (basil), and Rosmarinus officinalis (rosemary). Constituents worth mentioning include menthol and eugenol.  From:  Freires, I. A., Denny, C., Benso, B., de Alencar, S. M., & Rosalen, P. L. (2015). Antibacterial activity of essential oils and their isolated constituents against cariogenic bacteria: a systematic review. Molecules, 20(4), 7329-7358.
• In this review of research of herbs to help with gingivitis, neem, clove, holy basil, cranberry, frankincense, pomegranate, and guava were mentioned.  From:  Lakshmi, T., Rajesvari, R., Selvaraj, A., & Parameswari, R. (2017). Herbal care for dental plaque-induced gingivitis: A review. Journal of Advanced Pharmacy Education & Research| Jul-Sep, 7(3).
• In a two week double blind study with 60 gingivitis patients, an herbal toothpaste comprised of Acacia chundra, Adhatoda vasica, Mimusops elengi, Piper nigrum, Pongamia pinnata, Quercus infectoria, Syzygium aromaticum, Terminalia chebula, and Zingiber officinale reduced gingivitis and oral microbes. From: Jayashankar, S., Panagoda, G. J., Amaratunga, E. A. P. D., Perera, K., & Rajapakse, P. S. (2011). A randomised double-blind placebo-controlled study on the effects of a herbal toothpaste on gingival bleeding, oral hygiene and microbial variables. Ceylon Medical Journal, 56(1).
• Ethenol extracts from Syzygium aromaticum, Allium sativum, Curcuma longa, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Ocimum sanctum, Piper nigrum, Azadirachta indica, Centella asiatica, and Zingiber officinale showed antimicrobial activity against most tested oral microbes. From: Gauniyal, P., & Teotia, U. V. S. (2014). Phytochemical screening and antimicrobial activity of some medicinal plants against oral flora. Asian Pac J Health Sci, 1(3), 255-63.
• In a randomized controlled clinical study with 40 patients having moderate or severe periodontitis, an herbal mouthwash was assessed compared to a placebo. Both were taken twice a day for two minutes for 3 months. The herbal mouthwash contained Propolis resin extract, Plantago lanceolata, Salvia officinalis leaves extract, and 1.75% of essential oils (Salvia officinalis, Syzygium aromaticum buds, Mentha piperita leaves, Commiphora myrrha oleoresin and Pistacia lentiscus oleoresin). Results showed the herbal mouthwash reduced bleeding and plaque. From: Sparabombe, S., Monterubbianesi, R., Tosco, V., Orilisi, G., Hosein, A., Ferrante, L., … & Orsini, G. (2019). Efficacy of an all-natural polyherbal mouthwash in patients with periodontitis: a single-blind randomized controlled trial. Frontiers in physiology, 10, 632.

HEPATOPROTECTIVE

• Clove bud oil and its constituents showed remarkable scavenging activity and hepatoprotective activity.  From:  Nassar, M. I., Gaara, A. H., El-Ghorab, A. H., Farrag, A., Shen, H., Huq, E., & Mabry, T. J. (2007). Chemical constituents of clove (Syzygium aromaticum, Fam. Myrtaceae) and their antioxidant activity. Revista Latinoamericana de Química, 35(3), 47.
• Those rats with iron overload who ingested a blend of turmeric, clove, chli, and cardamom had improvement in the liver functions, suggesting a chemo-protective effect.  From: Sadeek, E. A., & El-Razek, F. A. (2010). The chemo-protective effect of turmeric, chili, cloves and cardamom on correcting iron overload-induced liver injury, oxidative stress and serum lipid profile in rat models. Journal of American Science, 6(10), 7.

ANTIDIABETIC

• Oregano, rosemary, clove, and other plants showed positive glycation inhibitory and antioxidative activities that could be useful in treating diabetes. From:  Kim, H. Y., & Kim, K. (2003). Protein glycation inhibitory and antioxidative activities of some plant extracts in vitro. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 51(6), 1586-1591.
• Eating clove budmay reduce hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia, hepatotoxicity and oxidative stress in those with a type 2 diabetic condition.  From:  Adefegha, S. A., Oboh, G., Adefegha, O. M., Boligon, A. A., & Athayde, M. L. (2014). Antihyperglycemic, hypolipidemic, hepatoprotective and antioxidative effects of dietary clove (Szyzgium aromaticum) bud powder in a high‐fat diet/streptozotocin‐induced diabetes rat model. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 94(13), 2726-2737.
• Extracts of cloves, ground Jamaican allspice, and cinnamon showed the strong antidiabetic activity in vitro, likely due to phenolic content. Other potent herbs tested included sage, marjoram, tarragon, and rosemary. From:  Dearlove, R. P., Greenspan, P., Hartle, D. K., Swanson, R. B., & Hargrove, J. L. (2008). Inhibition of protein glycation by extracts of culinary herbs and spices. Journal of medicinal food, 11(2), 275-281.

• Cinnamon was the most bioactive for improving glucose and insulin metabolism followed by witch hazel, green and black teas, allspice, bay leaves, nutmeg, cloves, mushrooms, and brewer’s yeast.  Phenols were likely the active constituent of cinnamon, tea, witch hazel, cloves, bay, and all spice.  From:  Broadhurst, C. L., Polansky, M. M., & Anderson, R. A. (2000). Insulin-like biological activity of culinary and medicinal plant aqueous extracts in vitro. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 48(3), 849-852.

ANTI-INFLAMMATORY / ANTI-NOCICEPTIVE / ANAESTHETIC

• Phytochemicals derived from spices can reduce inflammatory diseases.  These include turmeric (curcumin), red pepper (capsaicin), cloves (eugenol), ginger (gingerol), cumin, anise (anethol), fennel (anethol), basil (ursolic acid), rosemary (ursolic acid), garlic (diallyl sulfide, S-allylmercaptocysteine, and ajoene), and pomegranate (ellagic acid). From:  Aggarwal, B. B., & Shishodia, S. (2004). Suppression of the Nuclear Factor‐κB Activation Pathway by Spice‐Derived Phytochemicals: Reasoning for Seasoning. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1030(1), 434-441.
• Clove oil possesses anti-inflammatory and peripheral antinociceptive activities. From:  Daniel, A. N., Sartoretto, S. M., Schmidt, G., Caparroz-Assef, S. M., Bersani-Amado, C. A., & Cuman, R. K. N. (2009). Anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activities A of eugenol essential oil in experimental animal models. Revista Brasileira de Farmacognosia, 19(1B), 212-217.​
• The study tested anaesthetic activity of β-caryophyllene, one of the main components of clove oil from S. aromaticum.  From:  Ghelardini, C., Galeotti, N., Mannelli, L. D. C., Mazzanti, G., & Bartolini, A. (2001). Local anaesthetic activity of β-caryophyllene. Il Farmaco, 56(5), 387-389.
• Clove and eugenol exerted immunomodulatory/anti-inflammatory effects. From:  Bachiega, T. F., de Sousa, J. P. B., Bastos, J. K., & Sforcin, J. M. (2012). Clove and eugenol in noncytotoxic concentrations exert immunomodulatory/anti‐inflammatory action on cytokine production by murine macrophages. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, 64(4), 610-616.
• Clove combined with rosemary reduced inflammatory pain in vivo.  From:  Beltrán-Villalobos, K. L., Déciga-Campos, M., Aguilar-Mariscal, H., González-Trujano, M. E., Martínez-Salazar, M. F., de los Ángeles Ramírez-Cisneros, M., … & López-Muñoz, F. J. (2017). Synergistic antinociceptive interaction of Syzygium aromaticum or Rosmarinus officinalis coadministered with ketorolac in rats. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy, 94, 858-864.
• Research on analgesic activities of essential oils is reviewed. Included is: wild caraway (Bunium persicum ), lemon (Citrus limon), lemongrass (Cymbopogon citrates), eucalyptus (Eucalyptus citriodora), clove (Eugenia caryophyllata), hogweed (Heracleum persicum), Hofmeisteria schaffneri, bushmint (Hyptis fruticosa), star anise (Illicum lanceolatum), verbenea (Lippia gracilis), chamomile (Matricaria recutita), Cuban mint (Mentha x villosa), catmint (Nepeta crispa Willd), basil (Ocimum basilicum), Peperomia serpens, Pimenta pseudocaryophyllus, long pepper (Piper alyreanum), Summer savory (Satureja hortensis), Senecio rufinervis, Tetradenia riparia, Teucrium stocksianum, Ugni myricoides, valerian (Valeriana wallichii), Xylopia laevigata, and candeeiro (Vanillosmopsis arborea). From: Sarmento-Neto, J., do Nascimento, L., Felipe, C., & de Sousa, D. (2015). Analgesic potential of essential oils. Molecules, 21(1), 20.
• Essential oil components were investigated to decrease harm caused by air pollution. The tested components, trans-anethole, estragole, eugenol and isoeugenol decreased the inflammatory response. From: Kfoury, M., Borgie, M., Verdin, A., Ledoux, F., Courcot, D., Auezova, L., & Fourmentin, S. (2016). Essential oil components decrease pulmonary and hepatic cells inflammation induced by air pollution particulate matter. Environmental chemistry letters, 14(3), 345-351.

ANTI-CANCER

• Clove showed anticancer / antiproliferative activity with minimal cytotoxicity against cervical cancer, breast cancer, prostate cancer, and esophageal cancer.  From: Dwivedi, V., Shrivastava, R., Hussain, S., Ganguly, C., & Bharadwaj, M. (2011). Comparative anticancer potential of clove (Syzygium aromaticum)—an Indian spice—against cancer cell lines of various anatomical origin. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev, 12(8), 1989-1993.

DIGESTIVE HEALTH

• Cinnamon, clove, oregano, and thyme at the right dose can reduce E. coli with minimal intestine cell cytotoxicity.  From:  Dušan, F., Marián, S., Katarína, D., & Dobroslava, B. (2006). Essential oils—their antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli and effect on intestinal cell viability. Toxicology in vitro, 20(8), 1435-1445.

ANTI-ARTHRITIC

• ​Eugenol, a component of essential oil of cloves (Syzygium aromaticum) was anti-arthritic in mice.  From:  Grespan, R., Paludo, M., Lemos, H. D. P., Barbosa, C. P., Bersani-Amado, C. A., Dalalio, M. M. D. O., & Cuman, R. K. N. (2012). Anti-arthritic effect of eugenol on collagen-induced arthritis experimental model. Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 35(10), 1818-1820.

SKIN / WOUND

• The high fungistatic effects of clove and peppermint essential oils may be useful for treating skin fungi.  From:  El-Naghy, M. A., Maghazy, S. N., Fadl-Allah, E. M., & El-Gendy, Z. K. (1992). Fungistatic action of natural oils and fatty acids on dermatophytic and saprophytic fungi. Zentralblatt für Mikrobiologie, 147(3), 214-220.
• In a study of 50 patients with wound ulcers, an herbal ointment was applied twice a day for 28 days. It contained Symphytum officinale, Plantago major, Calendula officinalis, Matricaria chamomilla, Bellis perennis, Achillea millefolium, Salvia officinalis, Hypericum perforatum, Olea europaea, Lavandula officinalis, Melaleuca alternifolia, Cympobogon martini, Origanum vulgare, Eugenia caryophyllata, Thymus vulgaris ct. thymol, Cera alba, honey, and glycerol. Results showed significant healing of wounds. From: Oreščanin, V. (2016). Treatment of pressure ulcers with Bioapifit® wound healing herbal ointment-a preliminary study. IJRDO: J Biol Sci, 2(10), 1-15.

PRESERVATIVE

• Essential oils of cilantro, coriander, cinnamon, oregano, rosemary, sage, clove, thyme, lemongrass, turmeric, mint, basil, and constituents of linalool, cinnamaldehyde, carvacrol, thymol, terpinene, cymene, alpha/beta pinene, bornyl acetate, camphor, 1,8-cineole, alpha terpeneol, geraniol, perrilaldehyde, and eugenol have demonstrated food preserving potential.  From:  Burt, S. (2004). Essential oils: their antibacterial properties and potential applications in foods—a review. International journal of food microbiology, 94(3), 223-253.

QUIT SMOKING

• Medicinal herbal teas including Eugenia aromaticum (clove) and Astragalus membranaceus (astragalus) reduced smoking withdrawal symptoms in 100 male participants.  From:  From:  Lee, H. J., & Lee, J. H. (2005). Effects of medicinal herb tea on the smoking cessation and reducing smoking withdrawal symptoms. The American journal of Chinese medicine, 33(01), 127-138.

ATHLETE’S FOOT

• In a case study of a 63 year old women, a recipe with arrow root powder, baking soda, and essential oils of basil, tea tree, sage, and clove reduced foot bacteria and fungus.  From:  Misner, B. D. (2007). A novel aromatic oil compound inhibits microbial overgrowth on feet: a case study. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 4(1), 3.
• The high fungistatic effects of clove and peppermint essential oils may be useful for treating skin fungi.  From:  El-Naghy, M. A., Maghazy, S. N., Fadl-Allah, E. M., & El-Gendy, Z. K. (1992). Fungistatic action of natural oils and fatty acids on dermatophytic and saprophytic fungi. Zentralblatt für Mikrobiologie, 147(3), 214-220.
• The following essential oils and blends showed antifungal action against Trichophyton interdigitale when applied to cotton: oregano, cinnamon, and the combination of origanum/clove/orange and clove/lavender/cinnamon. This may be useful in making footwear to prevent foot fungus. From:   Berechet, M. D., Chirilă, C., & Deselnicu, V. (2016). Antifungal Activity of Some Essential Oils on Cotton Fabrics. In International Conference on Advanced Materials and Systems (ICAMS) (pp. 197-202). The National Research & Development Institute for Textiles and Leather-INCDTP.
• Oregano, thyme, cinnamon bark, lemongrass, clove, palmarosa, peppermint, lavender, geranium Bourbon, and tea tree reduced fungus in heated footbath water.  From:  Inouye, S., Uchida, K., Nishiyama, Y., Hasumi, Y., Yamaguchi, H., & Abe, S. (2007). Combined effect of heat, essential oils and salt on the fungicidal activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes in foot bath. Nippon Ishinkin Gakkai Zasshi, 48(1), 27-36.

GREEN GARDENING

• Thirty essential oils were tested against pathogenic plant bacteria. Ceylon cinnamon (leaf and bark), oregano, clove bud, palmarosa, basil, peppermint, rosemary, blue gum, camphor, lemongrass, aniseed, ylang ylang, silver fir, lemon, dwarf mountain pine, bay laurel, scots pine, black cumin, Indian frankincense, bergamot orange, common juniper, bitter orange, and neem showed varying degrees of reaction.  From: Popović, T., Milićević, Z., Oro, V., Kostić, I., Radović, V., Jelušić, A., & Krnjajić, S. (2018). A preliminary study of antibacterial activity of thirty essential oils against several important plant pathogenic bacteria. Pesticidi i fitomedicina, 33(3-4), 185-195.

RESPIRATORY

• Essential oil components were investigated to decrease harm caused by air pollution. The tested components, trans-anethole, estragole, eugenol and isoeugenol decreased the inflammatory response. From: Kfoury, M., Borgie, M., Verdin, A., Ledoux, F., Courcot, D., Auezova, L., & Fourmentin, S. (2016). Essential oil components decrease pulmonary and hepatic cells inflammation induced by air pollution particulate matter. Environmental chemistry letters, 14(3), 345-351.

By: Kathy Sadowski

Updated: 2/18/2020