Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) Research

Latin Name: Foeniculum vulgare

Family: Apiaceae

Fennel seeds can be made into a tea to reduce digestive upset and coughing.  The herb also has an estrogenic effect that may help with painful menstruation and menopausal symptoms.  Further, fennel has shown insecticidal, anti-parasite, and repelling potential.  In vitro research has found the plant to be antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anti-platelet aggregating, anti-diabetic, and antioxidant.

RESEARCH

The listings of research below represent a compilation of scientific articles found on the species, with a very brief overview description of each article/study.  Research found is catalogued by therapeutic action.  This categorized compilation of research articles does not necessarily imply that there are adequate results to demonstrate safe and/or effective human use.

GENERAL

• Review of the research on fennel is provided. It has an effect on the skin, urinary, nervous, digestive, cardiovascular, and reproductive systems. It has an anti-inflammatory, analgesic, bronchodilatory, anti-glaucoma, anti-allergic, antimicrobial, anti-parasitic, anti-diabetic, hepatoprotective, anti-cancer, antioxidant and hypolipidemic effect. From: Al-Snafi, A. E. (2018). The chemical constituents and pharmacological effects of Foeniculum vulgare-A review. IOSR Journal of Pharmacy, 8(5), 81-96.
• Therapeutic actions of fennel and its essential oil are reviewed. It has shown antimicrobial, antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, anti-parasitic, insecticidal, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, diuretic, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, anti-ulcer, hepatoprotective, and hypontensive activities. It has shown to help with eye health, osteoporosis, digestive health, anxiety, depression, cognition, female health, cardiac health, and respiratory health. From: Syed, F. Q., Mirza, M. B., Elkady, A. I., Hakeem, K. R., & Alkarim, S. (2019). An Insight of Multitudinous and Inveterate Pharmacological Applications of Foeniculum vulgare (Fennel). In Plant and Human Health, Volume 3 (pp. 231-254). Springer, Cham.
• This provided an overview on the uses and scientific research for F. vulgare.  From:  Rather, M. A., Dar, B. A., Sofi, S. N., Bhat, B. A., & Qurishi, M. A. (2012). Foeniculum vulgare: A comprehensive review of its traditional use, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and safety. Arabian Journal of Chemistry.
• This article provided an overview on the research and therapeutic uses of fennel.  From:  Badgujar, S. B., Patel, V. V., & Bandivdekar, A. H. (2014). Foeniculum vulgare Mill: a review of its botany, phytochemistry, pharmacology, contemporary application, and toxicology. BioMed research international, 2014.
• Lis-Balchin, M. (2006). Aromatherapy Science: A guide for healthcare professionals. London: Pharmaceutical Press.
• Petersen, D.  (2015).  Aromatherapy materia medica.  Essential oil monographs.  American College of Healthcare Sciences.
• Petersen, D. (2016). HERB503 Course Material:  Advanced Herbal Materia Medica II.  American College of Healthcare Sciences.
• Tisserand, R. & Young, R. (2014)  Essential Oil Safety.  Second Edition.  Churchill, Livingstone, Elsevier.
• Natural Medicines (2015).  Fenel Monograph.  Retrieved in June 2017.  Retrieved from www.naturalmedicines.com
• WebMD.  (n.d.).  Fennel.  Retrieved in December, 2015.  Retrieved from www.webmd.com

SAFETY

• Essential oil often adultered with synthetic anethole, fenchone, or phellandrene.  Synthetic anethole is toxic (Petersen, 2015).
• Toxic constituents in essential oil: perform skin patch test before use.  Constituents of concern are fenchone, pinene, and phellandrene (Petersen, 2015).
• Topical use of essential oil with excessive sunlight exposure should be avoided (Petersen, 2016).
• Essential oil not for those with nervous system issues, epilepsy, or estrogen related issues, and may increase anticoagulant drugs (Petersen, 2016).
• Avoid essential oil pre-surgery and with bleeding disorders; avoid with certain medications for diabetes, anticoagulants, peptic ulcers, and hemophilia (Tisserand & Young, 2014).
• Toxic induced seizures from the following plants was reported:  eucalyptus, fennel, hyssop, pennyroyal, rosemary, sage, savin, tansy, thuja, turpentine, and wormwood.  Ketone constituents including camphor, pinocamphone, thujone, cineole, pulegone, sabinylacetate, and fenchone were mentioned.From:  Burkhard, P. R., Burkhardt, K., Haenggeli, C. A., & Landis, T. (1999). Plant-induced seizures: reappearance of an old problem. Journal of neurology, 246(8), 667-670.
• Do not use essential oils for over a three weeks (Petersen, 2015).
• Essential oil not for use during pregnancy due to a hormone like effect (Lis-Balchin, 2006).
• Avoid the herb with pregnancy and lactation (Natural Medicines, 2016).
• Avoid essential oil with pregnancy, lactation, estrogen dependant cancers and conditions, and with children under age five (Tisserand & Young, 2014).
• Look for an essential oil with an anethole quantity of at least 60% (Petersen, 2015).
• Not to be confused with anise; both plants having a high amount of anethole and smelling like licorice (Lis-Balchin, 2006).
• Those with an allergy to celery, mugwort, or carrot, may need to avoid fennel (WebMD, n.d.).
• Fennel may slow blood clotting and should be avoided with bleeding disorders (WebMD, n.d.).
• May interact with the following drugs:  birth control pills, Cipro, estrogens, and tamoxifen (WebMD, n.d.).

DRUG METABOLISM

• Melaleuca leucadendron (cajuput), Foeniculum vulgare (fennel), Cinnamomum burmani (cinnamon), Strychnos ligustrina, and Piper nigrum (black pepper) may inhibit CYP3A4 and/or CYP2D6 in the liver, affecting drug and chemicals metabolism.  From:  Usia, T., Iwata, H., Kadota, S., & Tezuka, Y. (2006). Mechanism-based inhibition of CYP3A4 and CYP2D6 by Indonesian medicinal plants. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 105(3), 449-455.

INSECTICIDAL / REPELLENT / ACARICIDAL

• Fennel showed acaricidal activity against dust mites, likely from the fenchone and p-anisaldehyde constituents.  From:  Lee, H. S. (2004). Acaricidal activity of constituents identified in Foeniculum vulgare fruit oil against Dermatophagoides spp.(Acari: Pyroglyphidae). Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 52(10), 2887-2889.
• The insecticidal activities of essential oil extracts against the mosquito Culex pipiens molestus Forskål were determined. Extracts of Foeniculum vulgare (fennel) were the most toxic, followed by Ferula hermonis Boiss (in the carrot family), Citrus sinensis (orange), Pinus pinea (pine), Laurus nobilis (bay), and Eucalyptus spp.  Terpineol and 1,8-cineole components were the most effective in preventing Culex pipiens molestus bites.   From:  Traboulsi, A. F., El‐Haj, S., Tueni, M., Taoubi, K., Nader, N. A., & Mrad, A. (2005). Repellency and toxicity of aromatic plant extracts against the mosquito Culex pipiens molestus (Diptera: Culicidae). Pest management science, 61(6), 597-604.
• Foeniculum vulgare Miller showed repellency against mosquitoes.  From:  Kim, S. I., Chang, K. S., Yang, Y. C., Kim, B. S., & Ahn, Y. J. (2004). Repellency of aerosol and cream products containing fennel oil to mosquitoes under laboratory and field conditions. Pest management science, 60(11), 1125-1130.
• Achillea millefolium, Lavandula angustifolia, Helichrysum italicum, Foeniculum vulgare, Myrtus communis, and Rosmarinus officinalis showed insecticidal activity against a mosquito species.  From;  Conti, B., Canale, A., Bertoli, A., Gozzini, F., & Pistelli, L. (2010). Essential oil composition and larvicidal activity of six Mediterranean aromatic plants against the mosquito Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae). Parasitology research, 107(6), 1455-1461.
• Insecticidal activity against Sitophilus oryzae, Callosobruchus chinensis and Lasioderma serricorne was demonstrated by fennel and its constituents: anethole, estragole, and fenchone.  From:  Kim, D. H., & Ahn, Y. J. (2001). Contact and fumigant activities of constituents of Foeniculum vulgare fruit against three coleopteran stored‐product insects. Pest Management Science, 57(3), 301-306.

REPELLENT

• The insecticidal activities of essential oil extracts against the mosquito Culex pipiens molestus Forskål were determined. Extracts of Foeniculum vulgare (fennel) were the most toxic, followed by Ferula hermonis Boiss (in the carrot family), Citrus sinensis (orange), Pinus pinea (pine), Laurus nobilis (bay), and Eucalyptus spp.  Terpineol and 1,8-cineole components were the most effective in preventing Culex pipiens molestus bites.   From:  Traboulsi, A. F., El‐Haj, S., Tueni, M., Taoubi, K., Nader, N. A., & Mrad, A. (2005). Repellency and toxicity of aromatic plant extracts against the mosquito Culex pipiens molestus (Diptera: Culicidae). Pest management science, 61(6), 597-604.
• Foeniculum vulgare Miller showed repellency against mosquitoes.  From:  Kim, S. I., Chang, K. S., Yang, Y. C., Kim, B. S., & Ahn, Y. J. (2004). Repellency of aerosol and cream products containing fennel oil to mosquitoes under laboratory and field conditions. Pest management science, 60(11), 1125-1130.

​​​DIGESTIVE AID

• The following methanol extracts showed activity against Helicobacter pylori which causes gastrointestinal disorders:  Myristica fragrans (nutmeg seed), Zingibar officinale (ginger root), Rosmarinus officinalis (rosemary leaf), Achillea millefolium (yarrow), Foeniculum vulgare (fennel seed), Passiflora incarnata (passionflower), Origanum majorana (oregano), and others.  From:  Mahady, G. B., Pendland, S. L., Stoia, A., Hamill, F. A., Fabricant, D., Dietz, B. M., & Chadwick, L. R. (2005). In vitro susceptibility of Helicobacter pylori to botanical extracts used traditionally for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders. Phytotherapy research, 19(11), 988-991.
• In a study with 211 patients with irritable bowel syndrome, a product containing extracts of turmeric and fennel essential oil taken over two months significantly reduced symptoms. From: Di Ciaula, A., Portincasa, P., Maes, N., & Albert, A. (2018). Efficacy of bio-optimized extracts of turmeric and essential fennel oil on the quality of life in patients with irritable bowel syndrome. Annals of gastroenterology, 31(6), 685.
• Ginger, peppermint, aniseed and fennel, citrus fruits, dandelion and artichoke, melissa and chamomile have digestive enhancing activities.  From:  Valussi, M. (2012). Functional foods with digestion-enhancing properties. International journal of food sciences and nutrition, 63(sup1), 82-89.
• In a study of 25 patients who were also using other medicines, a synergistic blend of Pimpinella anisum (anise), Foeniculum vulgare (sweet fennel), Anthemis nobilis (Roman chamomile) and Mentha piperita (peppermint) resulted in  nausea relief.  From:  Gilligan, N. P. (2005). The palliation of nausea in hospice and palliative care patients with essential oils of Pimpinella anisum (aniseed), Foeniculum vulgare var. dulce (sweet fennel), Anthemis nobilis (Roman chamomile) and Mentha x piperita (peppermint). International Journal of Aromatherapy, 15(4), 163-167.
• A blend of  Pimpinella anisum (anise), Foeniculum vulgare (fennel) , Sambucus nigra (elderberry), and Cassia angustifolia has laxative efficacy and is a safe alternative option for the treatment of constipation.  From:  Picon, P. D., Picon, R. V., Costa, A. F., Sander, G. B., Amaral, K. M., Aboy, A. L., & Henriques, A. T. (2010). Randomized clinical trial of a phytotherapic compound containing Pimpinella anisum, Foeniculum vulgare, Sambucus nigra, and Cassia augustifolia for chronic constipation. BMC complementary and alternative medicine, 10(1), 1.
• The following plant extracts were gastroprotective against H. pylori gastric infections in vitro: Achillea millefolium, Berberis aristata, Coriandrum sativum, Foeniculum vulgare, Matricaria chamomilla and Prunus domestica From: Zaidi, S. F., Muhammad, J. S., Shahryar, S., Usmanghani, K., Gilani, A. H., Jafri, W., & Sugiyama, T. (2012). Anti-inflammatory and cytoprotective effects of selected Pakistani medicinal plants in Helicobacter pylori-infected gastric epithelial cells. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 141(1), 403-410.

REDUCED COLLIC IN BABIES

• This randomized double blind placebo controlled study shows that colic in breastfed infant improves within 1 week of treatment with an extract based on Matricariae recutita, Foeniculum vulgare and Melissa officinalis. From:  Savino, F., Cresi, F., Castagno, E., Silvestro, L., & Oggero, R. (2005). A randomized double‐blind placebo‐controlled trial of a standardized extract of Matricariae recutita, Foeniculum vulgare and Melissa officinalis.
• Fennel seed decreased the intensity of infant colic in a randomized, placebo-controlled study.  From:  Alexandrovich, I., Rakovitskaya, O., Kolmo, E., Sidorova, T., & Shushunov, S. (2003). The effect of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) seed oil emulsion in infantile colic: a randomized, placebo-controlled study. Alternative therapies in health and medicine, 9(4), 58.

ANTIOXIDANT

• F. vulgare was tested for antioxidant activity.  From:  De Marino, S., Gala, F., Borbone, N., Zollo, F., Vitalini, S., Visioli, F., & Iorizzi, M. (2007). Phenolic glycosides from Foeniculum vulgare fruit and evaluation of antioxidative activity. Phytochemistry, 68(13), 1805-1812.
• Antimicrobial and antioxidant activities from the essential oils from seeds of three organically grown fennel (Foeniculum vulgare var. azoricum, Foeniculum vulgare var. dulce, and Foeniculumvulgare var. vulgare) were found.  Constituents found in high amounts in the tested oils were trans-Anethole (61% for azoricum), estragole (57% for vulgare), fenchone (13% for dulce), and limonene (28% for dulce).  From:  Chang, S., Mohammadi Nafchi, A., & Karim, A. A. (2016). Chemical composition, antioxidant activity and antimicrobial properties of three selected varieties of Iranian fennel seeds. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 28(4), 357-363.
• All the studied extracts showed antioxidant capability, with P. anisum showing the strongest effect, and there being a positive correlation between antioxidant potency and flavonoid content. Oils tested included:   Bunium persicum (similar to cumin), Coriandrum sativum (coriander), Cuminum cyminum (cumin), Foeniculum vulgare (fennel), Heracleum persicum (Persian hogweed), Pimpinella anisum (anise) and Trachyspermum copticum (ajowan).  From:  Nickavar, B., & Abolhasani, F. A. (2009). Screening of antioxidant properties of seven Umbelliferae fruits from Iran. Pak J Pharm Sci, 22(1), 30-35.
• Foeniculum vulgare seed extract demonstrated antioxidant activity.  From:  Oktay, M., Gülçin, İ., & Küfrevioğlu, Ö. İ. (2003). Determination of in vitro antioxidant activity of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) seed extracts. LWT-Food Science and Technology, 36(2), 263-271.
• Wild Laurus nobilis (bay) and Foeniculum vulgar (fennel) plants showed greater antioxidant and radical scavenging activity than the cultivated plants.  From:  Conforti, F., Statti, G., Uzunov, D., & Menichini, F. (2006). Comparative chemical composition and antioxidant activities of wild and cultivated Laurus nobilis L. leaves and Foeniculum vulgare subsp. piperitum (Ucria) coutinho seeds. Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 29(10), 2056-2064.
• Wild fennel exhibited the highest radical scavenging activity, as well as a total phenolic and flavonoid content compared to medicinal and edible fennels.  From:  Faudale, M., Viladomat, F., Bastida, J., Poli, F., & Codina, C. (2008). Antioxidant activity and phenolic composition of wild, edible, and medicinal fennel from different Mediterranean countries. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 56(6), 1912-1920.

ANTIMICROBIAL / ANTIBACTERIAL / ANTIVIRAL / ANTI-FUNGAL

• Origanum onites, Mentha piperita, Juniperus exalsa, Chrysanthemum indicum, Lavandula hybrida, Rosa damascena, Echinophora tenuifolia, and Foeniculum vulgare were tested for antimicrobial activity. From:  Andoğan, B. C., Baydar, H., Kaya, S., Demirci, M., Özbaşar, D., & Mumcu, E. (2002). Antimicrobial activity and chemical composition of some essential oils. Archives of pharmacal research, 25(6), 860-864.
• Nine plant spice essential oils were tested on various microorganisms (Salmonella typhimurium, Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Yersinia enterocolitica, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida rugosa, Rhizopus oryzae and Aspergillus niger and showed antimicrobial activity and may be used to combat pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms, and improve shelf-life of foods.  They included: savory, laurel, oregano, basil, cumin, sea fennel, myrtle,and mint.  From:  Özcan, M., & Erkmen, O. (2001). Antimicrobial activity of the essential oils of Turkish plant spices. European Food Research and Technology, 212(6), 658-660.
• Pomegranate, A. nolotica, cumin, and fennel showed antifungal activity against Candida albicans.  From:  Pai, M. B., Prashant, G. M., Murlikrishna, K. S., Shivakumar, K. M., & Chandu, G. N. (2010). Antifungal efficacy of Punica granatum, Acacia nilotica, Cuminum cyminum and Foeniculum vulgare on Candida albicans: an in vitro study. Indian Journal of Dental Research, 21(3), 334.
• Oregano (Origanum syriacum), thyme (Thymbra spicata), lavender (Lavandula stoechas), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), and laurel (Laurus nobilis), inhibited growth of tomatoe fungus.  From:  Soylu, E. M., Soylu, S., & Kurt, S. (2006). Antimicrobial activities of the essential oils of various plants against tomato late blight disease agent Phytophthora infestans. Mycopathologia, 161(2), 119-128.
• Thyme, sweet fennel, marjoram, mint, oregano, sage, savory, and thyme showed antibacterial activity against Bacillus species. From:  Özcan, M. M., Sagdıç, O., & Özkan, G. (2006). Inhibitory effects of spice essential oils on the growth of Bacillus species. Journal of medicinal food, 9(3), 418-421.
• At high doses and undiluted, coriander, fennel, peppermint, dill, fir, juniper, rosemary, and lavender were active against E. coli, S. aureus, and Candida albicans.  From:  Şerban, E. S., Ionescu, M. I. H. A. E. L. A., Matinca, D. O. I. N. A., Maier, C. S., & Bojiţă, M. T. (2011). Screening of the antibacterial and antifungal activity of eight volatile essential oils. Farmacia, 59(3), 440-446.
• Orange, eucalyptus, fennel, geranium, juniper, peppermint, rosemary, purified turpentine, thyme, and Australian tea tree oil as well as the constituent of menthol showed antimicrobial and antiplasmid activities against the bacteria tested. From:  Schelz, Z., Molnar, J., & Hohmann, J. (2006). Antimicrobial and antiplasmid activities of essential oils. Fitoterapia, 77(4), 279-285.
• Origanum minutiflorum (oregano), Laurus nobilis (bay), Lavandula stoechas (lavender) and Foeniculum vulgare (fennel) were effective against  the following foodborne pathogens: Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella typhimurium, and Staphylococcus aureus. Constituents included carvacrol, 1,8-cineole, fenchone, and trans-anethole.  From:  Dadalioglu, I., & Evrendilek, G. A. (2004). Chemical compositions and antibacterial effects of essential oils of Turkish oregano (Origanum minutiflorum), bay laurel (Laurus nobilis), Spanish lavender (Lavandula stoechas L.), and fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) on common foodborne pathogens. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 52(26), 8255-8260.
• The antiviral activity of the essential oils of fennel and anise were tested against the potato virus X, the tobacco mosaic virus, and the tobacco ring spot virus and totally inhibited the formation of the plant’s local lesions at a concentration of 3000 ppm.  From:  Shukla, H. S., Dubey, P., & Chaturvedi, R. V. (1989). Antiviral properties of essential oils of Foeniculum vulgare and Pimpinella anisum L. Agronomie, 9(3), 277-279.
• Antimicrobial and antioxidant activities from the essential oils from seeds of three organically grown fennel (Foeniculum vulgare var. azoricum, Foeniculum vulgare var. dulce, and Foeniculumvulgare var. vulgare) were found.  Constituents found in high amounts in the tested oils were trans-Anethole (61% for azoricum), estragole (57% for vulgare), fenchone (13% for dulce), and limonene (28% for dulce).  From:  Chang, S., Mohammadi Nafchi, A., & Karim, A. A. (2016). Chemical composition, antioxidant activity and antimicrobial properties of three selected varieties of Iranian fennel seeds. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 28(4), 357-363.
• Antimicrobial and antioxidant activities for German chamomile and fennel essential oils were assessed.  From:  Roby, M. H. H., Sarhan, M. A., Selim, K. A. H., & Khalel, K. I. (2013).  Antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of essential oil and extracts of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare L.) and chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.). Industrial crops and products, 44, 437-445.
• Essential oils of thyme, peppermint, pennyroyal, caraway, and fennel showed antibacterial activity against S. aureus and E. coli.  From:  Mohsenzadeh, M. (2007). Evaluation of antibacterial activity of selected Iranian essential oils against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli in nutrient broth medium. Pak J Biol Sci, 10(20), 3693-3697.
• Antimicrobial activity of F. vulgare was discussed.  From:  Kwon, Y. S., Choi, W. G., Kim, W. J., Kyung Kim, W., Kim, M. J., Kang, W. H., & Kim, C. M. (2002). Antimicrobial constituents of Foeniculum vulgare. Archives of pharmacal research, 25(2), 154-157.
• Fennel provided dose dependant antifungal activity.  From:  Özcan, M. M., Chalchat, J. C., Arslan, D., Ates, A., & Ünver, A. (2006). Comparative essential oil composition and antifungal effect of bitter fennel (Foeniculum vulgare ssp. piperitum) fruit oils obtained during different vegetation. Journal of medicinal food, 9(4), 552-561.
• F. vulgare showed antibacterial activity against a variety of bacteria.  From:  Diao, W. R., Hu, Q. P., Zhang, H., & Xu, J. G. (2014). Chemical composition, antibacterial activity and mechanism of action of essential oil from seeds of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.). Food Control, 35(1), 109-116.
• Fennel and dill showed anticandidal and antimycobacterial properties.  From:  Abed, K. F. (2007). Antimicrobial activity of essential oils of some medicinal plants from Saudi Arabia. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences, 14(1), 53-60.
• F. vulgare showed antimicrobial and antioxidant activity.  From:  Shahat, A. A., Ibrahim, A. Y., Hendawy, S. F., Omer, E. A., Hammouda, F. M., Abdel-Rahman, F. H., & Saleh, M. A. (2011). Chemical composition, antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of essential oils from organically cultivated fennel cultivars. Molecules, 16(2), 1366-1377.
• Oregano and fennel were antifungal against the plant fungus: S. sclerotiorum.  From:  Soylu, S., Yigitbas, H., Soylu, E. M., & Kurt, Ş. (2007). Antifungal effects of essential oils from oregano and fennel on Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. Journal of applied microbiology, 103(4), 1021-1030.
• Fennel showed antifungal and antioxidative activity.  From:  Singh, G., Maurya, S., De Lampasona, M. P., & Catalan, C. (2006). Chemical constituents, antifungal and antioxidative potential of Foeniculum vulgare volatile oil and its acetone extract. Food control, 17(9), 745-752.
• Anethum graveolens (dill), Foeniculum vulgare (fennel), and Trachyspermum ammi  (Ajowan caraway) showed antibacterial activity. From:  Kaur, G. J., & Arora, D. S. (2009). Antibacterial and phytochemical screening of Anethum graveolens, Foeniculum vulgare and Trachyspermum ammi. BMC complementary and alternative medicine, 9(1), 1.
• Three species of fennel showed antioxidant and antibacterial activity.  From:  Ruberto, G., Baratta, M. T., Deans, S. G., & Dorman, H. D. (2000). Antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of Foeniculum vulgare and Crithmum maritimum essential oils. Planta medica, 66(08), 687-693.
• The study assessed the antifungal activity of F. vulgare.  From:  Mimica‐Dukić, N., Kujundžić, S., Soković, M., & Couladis, M. (2003). Essential oil composition and antifungal activity of Foeniculum vulgare Mill. obtained by different distillation conditions. Phytotherapy Research, 17(4), 368-371.
• The following essential oils were tested and showed varying degrees of antimicrobial, antifungal, antibacterial, and antiviral activities: Anethum graveolens, Foeniculum vulgare, Mentha piperita, Mentha spicata, Lavandula officinalis, Ocimum basilicum, Origanum onites, O. vulgare, O. munitiflorum, O. majorana, Rosmarinus officinalis, Salvia officinalis, and Satureja cuneifolia. From: Orhan, İlkay Erdoğan, et al. “Antimicrobial and antiviral effects of essential oils from selected Umbelliferae and Labiatae plants and individual essential oil components.” Turkish Journal of Biology 36.3 (2012): 239-246.
• Anethum graveolens, Elettaria cardamomum, Foeniculum vulgare, Trachyspermum ammi and Viola odorata were effective against tested pathogenic bacteria. From: Arora, D. S., & Kaur, G. J. (2007). Antibacterial activity of some Indian medicinal plants. Journal of natural medicines, 61(3), 313-317.

PRESERVATIVE

• Nine plant spice essential oils were tested on various microorganisms (Salmonella typhimurium, Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Yersinia enterocolitica, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida rugosa, Rhizopus oryzae and Aspergillus niger and showed antimicrobial activity and may be used to combat pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms, and improve shelf-life of foods.  They included: savory, laurel, oregano, basil, cumin, sea fennel, myrtle,and mint.  From:  Özcan, M., & Erkmen, O. (2001). Antimicrobial activity of the essential oils of Turkish plant spices. European Food Research and Technology, 212(6), 658-660.
• Oregano (Origanum syriacum), thyme (Thymbra spicata), lavender (Lavandula stoechas), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), and laurel (Laurus nobilis), inhibited growth of tomatoe fungus.  From:  Soylu, E. M., Soylu, S., & Kurt, S. (2006). Antimicrobial activities of the essential oils of various plants against tomato late blight disease agent Phytophthora infestans. Mycopathologia, 161(2), 119-128.
• Origanum minutiflorum (oregano), Laurus nobilis (bay), Lavandula stoechas (lavender) and Foeniculum vulgare (fennel) were effective against  the following foodborne pathogens: Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella typhimurium, and Staphylococcus aureus. Constituents included carvacrol, 1,8-cineole, fenchone, and trans-anethole.  From:  Dadalioglu, I., & Evrendilek, G. A. (2004). Chemical compositions and antibacterial effects of essential oils of Turkish oregano (Origanum minutiflorum), bay laurel (Laurus nobilis), Spanish lavender (Lavandula stoechas L.), and fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) on common foodborne pathogens. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 52(26), 8255-8260.

ORAL HEALTH

• In this study of 50 subjects, chewing fennel and cardamom seeds improved oral saliva and plaque pH.  From:  Swathi, V., Rekha, R., Abhishek, J., Radha, G., Pallavi, S. K., & Gadde, P. (2016). Effect of chewing fennel and cardamom seeds on dental plaque and salivary ph–a randomized controlled trial. Int J Pharm Sci Res, 7(1), 406-412.

ANTI-DIABETIC

• Foeniculum vulgare essential oil corrected hyperglycemia and pathological abnormalities in diabetic rats, possibly related to its antioxidative effect. From:  El-Soud, N., El-Laithy, N., El-Saeed, G., Wahby, M., Khalil, M., Morsy, F., & Shaffie, N. (2011). Antidiabetic activities of Foeniculum vulgare mill. Essential oil in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences, 4(2), 139-146.

ANTI-INFLAMMATORY

• Phytochemicals derived from spices can reduce inflammatory diseases.  These include:  turmeric (curcumin), red pepper (capsaicin), cloves (eugenol), ginger (gingerol), cumin, anise (anethol), fennel (anethol), basil (ursolic acid), rosemary (ursolic acid), garlic (diallyl sulfide, S-allylmercaptocysteine, and ajoene), and pomegranate (ellagic acid).  From:  Aggarwal, B. B., & Shishodia, S. (2004). Suppression of the Nuclear Factor‐κB Activation Pathway by Spice‐Derived Phytochemicals: Reasoning for Seasoning. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1030(1), 434-441.
• Oral intake of Foeniculum vulgare inhibited acute and subacute inflammatory diseases and type IV allergic reactions, and demonstrated a central analgesic effect.  From:  Choi, E. M., & Hwang, J. K. (2004). Antiinflammatory, analgesic and antioxidant activities of the fruit of Foeniculum vulgare. Fitoterapia, 75(6), 557-565.

ANTI-NOCICEPTIVE / ANALGESIC

• Alpha-pinene and fenchone from fennel were both antinociceptive in this in vivo study.  From:  Him, A., Ozbek, H., Turel, I., & Oner, A. C. (2008). Antinociceptive activity of alpha-pinene and fenchone. Pharmacologyonline, 3, 363-369.
• Oral intake of Foeniculum vulgare inhibited acute and subacute inflammatory diseases and type IV allergic reactions, and demonstrated a central analgesic effect.  From:  Choi, E. M., & Hwang, J. K. (2004). Antiinflammatory, analgesic and antioxidant activities of the fruit of Foeniculum vulgare. Fitoterapia, 75(6), 557-565.

ANXIOLITIC

• Intranasal application of a product containing lavender and fennel improved sleep quality in 30 volunteers increased melatonin and decreased cortisol levels, and relaxed brain waves, indicating reduced stress. From: Jardim, M., Amaral, F., de Souza Antunes, V. M., Rodrigues, F., de Souza, M. S. A., Siqueto, F. R. F. R., … & Oliveira, C. R. (2018). PinetoninaTM, an Intranasally Administered Essential Oil Preparation, Is Effective in Decrease of Cortisol Levels and on the Glutamate Release Modulation. Neuroscience and Medicine, 9(03), 135.
• F. vulgare exhibited promising anxiolytic activity in mice.  Mesfin, M., Asres, K., & Shibeshi, W. (2014). Evaluation of anxiolytic activity of the essential oil of the aerial part of Foeniculum vulgare Miller in mice. BMC complementary and alternative medicine, 14(1), 1.

STIMULANT

• Fragrance inhalation affected the sympathetic nervous system. Pepper, estragon oil, fennel, and grapefruit increased sympathetic activity, and rose and patchouli oils decreased sympathetic activity.  Inhaling pepper oil increased plasma adrenaline levels while rose oil decreased adrenealine.  From:  Haze, S., Sakai, K., & Gozu, Y. (2002). Effects of fragrance inhalation on sympathetic activity in normal adults. The Japanese journal of pharmacology, 90(3), 247-253.

CARDIAC HEALTH

• Oils high in phenylpropanoids showed antiplatelet activity including: Ocotea quixos, Foeniculum vulgaris (fennel), and Artemisia dracunculus (tarragon) showed the highest antiplatelet activity.  From:  Tognolini, M., Barocelli, E., Ballabeni, V., Bruni, R., Bianchi, A., Chiavarini, M., & Impicciatore, M. (2006). Comparative screening of plant essential oils: phenylpropanoid moiety as basic core for antiplatelet activity. Life sciences, 78(13), 1419-1432.
• Ocotea quixos (Ocotea), Foeniculum vulgaris (fennel), and Artemisia dracunculus (tarragon) showed the highest antiplatelet activity.  From: Tognolini, M., Barocelli, E., Ballabeni, V., Bruni, R., Bianchi, A., Chiavarini, M., & Impicciatore, M. (2006). Comparative screening of plant essential oils: phenylpropanoid moiety as basic core for antiplatelet activity. Life sciences, 78(13), 1419-1432.
• F. vulgare essential oil, and its main component anethole, showed safe antithrombotic activity. From:  Tognolini, M., Ballabeni, V., Bertoni, S., Bruni, R., Impicciatore, M., & Barocelli, E. (2007). Protective effect of Foeniculum vulgare essential oil and anethole in an experimental model of thrombosis. Pharmacological Research, 56(3), 254-260.

ANTI-GLAUCOMA

• As a possible treatment for glaucoma, extract of Foeniculum vulgare possessed significant oculohypotensive activity comparable to that of timolol. From:  Agarwal, R. E. N. U., Gupta, S. K., Agrawal, S. S., Srivastava, S., & Saxena, R. (2008). Oculohypotensive effects of Foeniculum vulgare in experimental models of glaucoma. Indian J. Physiol. Pharmacol, 52(1), 77-83.

ESTROGEN FORMING / FEMALE HEALTH

• A review of the use of fennel to treat women’s health conditions is provided. Conditions include premenstrual disorders, dysmenorrhea, menopause, amenorrhea, lactation and polycystic ovarian syndrome. From: Mahboubi, M. (2019). Foeniculum vulgare as Valuable Plant in Management of Women’s Health. Journal of menopausal medicine, 25(1), 1-14.
• In a meta-analysis of 9 studies, fennel extract was considered effective for primary dysmenorrhea. However, there was much heterogeneity in the studies, and more worldwide studies are needed. From: Salehi, A., Marzban, M., & Amini, F. (2018). Effect of Foeniculum vulgare on Primary Dysmenorrhea: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Women Health, 6(1), e74240.
• In a triple-blind, placebo-controlled trial, 90 postmenopausal women took 100 mg of fennel twice a day for 8 weeks and showed significant reduction in menopausal symptoms.   From:  Rahimikian, F., Rahimi, R., Golzareh, P., Bekhradi, R., & Mehran, A. (2017). Effect of Foeniculum vulgare Mill.(fennel) on menopausal symptoms in postmenopausal women: a randomized, triple-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Menopause.
• In a a double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial with 60 postmenopausal women, intake of fennel helped reduce anxiety and depression. From: Ghazanfarpour, M., Mohammadzadeh, F., Shokrollahi, P., Khadivzadeh, T., Najaf Najafi, M., Hajirezaee, H., & Afiat, M. (2018). Effect of Foeniculum vulgare (fennel) on symptoms of depression and anxiety in postmenopausal women: a double-blind randomised controlled trial. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 38(1), 121-126.
• The article discussed fennel and anise used to increase milk secretion, promote menstruation, facilitate birth, alleviate male climacteric, and increase libido.  The main constituent of both fennel and anise is anethole, and it may be the active estrogenic agent.  From:  Albert-Puleo, M. (1980). Fennel and anise as estrogenic agents. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 2(4), 337-344.
• This articles reviews research on herbs for treating menstrual pain. Herbs included: ginger, German chamomile, mint, valerian, cramp bark, black haw, fennel, lemon balm, cumin, and cinnamon. From: Rajabzadeh, F., Fazljou, S. M., Khodaie, L., Abbasalizadeh, S., & Sahebi, L. (2018). Effects of hot temperament herbs on primary Dysmenorrhea: a systematic review. Middle East Journal of Family Medicine, 7(10), 257.
• Used as an estrogenic agent, fennel reduced hirsutism in females. From:  Javidnia, K., et al. “Antihirsutism activity of fennel (fruits of Foeniculum vulgare) extract–a double-blind placebo controlled study.” Phytomedicine 10.6 (2003): 455-458.
• Administration of fennel reduced symptoms of painful menstruation related to its pro-estrogen activity.  From:  Ostad, S. N., Soodi, M., Shariffzadeh, M., Khorshidi, N., & Marzban, H. (2001). The effect of fennel essential oil on uterine contraction as a model for dysmenorrhea, pharmacology and toxicology study. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 76(3), 299-304.
• Fennel reduced painful menstruation. From:  Khorshidi, N., Ostad, S. N., Mosaddegh, M., & Soodi, M. (2010). Clinical effects of fennel essential oil on primary dysmenorrhea. Iranian journal of pharmaceutical research, 89-93.
• Fennel may be usable as a safe and effective herbal drug for dysmenorrhea.  From:  Jahromi, B. N., Tartifizadeh, A., & Khabnadideh, S. (2003). Comparison of fennel and mefenamic acid for the treatment of primary dysmenorrhea. International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics, 80(2), 153-157.
• Fennel was as effective as mefanemic acid in treating dysmenorrhea.  From:  Modaress Nejad, V., & Asadipour, M. (2006). Comparison of the effectiveness of fennel and mefenamic acid on pain intensity in dysmenorrhea.
• Fennel reduced the effects of dysmenorrhea.  From:  Bokaie, M., Farajkhoda, T., Enjezab, B., Khoshbin, A., & Mojgan, K. Z. (2013). Oral fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) drop effect on primary dysmenorrhea: Effectiveness of herbal drug. Iranian journal of nursing and midwifery research, 18(2), 128.
• In a randomized controlled study with 60 postmenopausal women with sexual dysfunction, applying a cream containing a fennel extract for 8 weeks improved sexual functions. From: Abedi, P., Najafian, M., Yaralizadeh, M., & Namjoyan, F. (2018). Effect of fennel vaginal cream on sexual function in postmenopausal women: A double blind randomized controlled trial. Journal of medicine and life, 11(1), 24.
• A double-blind randomized controlled trial on 60 postmenopausal women showed a vaginal cream with fennel applied once a day for eight weeks reduced vaginal atrophy.  From:  Yaralizadeh, M., Abedi, P., Najar, S., Namjoyan, F., & Saki, A. (2016). Effect of Foeniculum vulgare (fennel) vaginal cream on vaginal atrophy in postmenopausal women: A double-blind randomized placebo-controlled trial. maturitas, 84, 75-80.
• In a study with 127 women with bacterial vaginosis, a vaginal suppository herbal blend of Tribulus terrestris, Myrtus commuis, Foeniculum vulgare and Tamarindus indica was as effective as metronidazole in reducing symptoms. From: Baery, N., Ghasemi Nejad, A., Amin, M., Mahroozade, S., Mokaberinejad, R., Bioos, S., … & Amin, G. (2018). Effect of vaginal suppository on bacterial vaginitis based on Persian medicine (Iranian traditional medicine): a randomised double blind clinical study. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 38(8), 1110-1114.

• Estrogenic activity of F. vulgare was demonstrated in genital size change of male and female rats.  From:  MALlNI, T., Vanithakumari, G., DEVI, N. M. S. A. K., & FIANGO, V. (1985). Effect of Foeniculum vulgare Mill seed extract on the genital organs of male and female rats.
• In a review of research, fennel reduced a variety of symptoms associated with menopause. From: Khadivzadeh, T., Najafi, M. N., Kargarfard, L., Ghazanfarpour, M., Dizavandi, F. R., & Khorsand, I. (2018). Effect of Fennel on the Health Status of Menopausal Women: A Systematic and Meta-analysis. Journal of menopausal medicine, 24(1), 67-74.

ANTI-CANCER / ANTI-TUMOR

• Fennel showed anticancer potential against breast cancer and liver cancer cell lines,  had strong free radical–scavenging activity to reduce oxidative stress and protect mouse cells from damage, and could be used as a natural antioxidant for fatty food storage.  From:  Mohamad, R. H., El-Bastawesy, A. M., Abdel-Monem, M. G., Noor, A. M., Al-Mehdar, H. A. R., Sharawy, S. M., & El-Merzabani, M. M. (2011). Antioxidant and anticarcinogenic effects of methanolic extract and volatile oil of fennel seeds (Foeniculum vulgare). Journal of medicinal food, 14(9), 986-1001.
• F. vulgare showed anti-tumor activity against human blood lymphocytes.  From:  Pradhan, M., Sribhuwaneswari, S., Karthikeyan, D., Minz, S., Sure, P., Chandu, A. N., … & Sivakumar, T. (2008). In-vitro cytoprotection activity of Foeniculum vulgare and Helicteres isora in cultured human blood lymphocytes and antitumour activity against B16F10 melanoma cell line. Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology, 1(4), 450-452.

​​COUGH

• Fennel seed was used to treat cough.  From:  Subhash, A. C. (1999). Controlling angiotensin-converting-enzyme-inhibitor induced cough by fennel fruit. Indian Journal of Pharmacology, 31(2), 159.

HEPATOPROTECTIVE

• Foeniculum vulgare essential oil had a potent hepatoprotective action in rats.  From:  Hanefi, Ã., Ugras, S., Bayram, I., Uygan, I., Erdogan, E., Abdurrahman, Ã., & Huyut, Z. (2004). Hepatoprotective effect of Foeniculum vulgare essential oil: A carbon-tetrachloride induced liver fibrosis model in rats. Scandinavian Journal of Laboratory Animal Sciences, 31(1), 9-17.
• F. vulgare had a potent hepatoprotective action in rats.  From: Özbek, H., Uğraş, S., Dülger, H., Bayram, I., Tuncer, I., Öztürk, G., & Öztürk, A. (2003). Hepatoprotective effect of Foeniculum vulgare essential oil. Fitoterapia, 74(3), 317-319.

ANTI-ALLERGY

• Oral intake of Foeniculum vulgare inhibited acute and subacute inflammatory diseases and type IV allergic reactions, and demonstrated a central analgesic effect.  From:  Choi, E. M., & Hwang, J. K. (2004). Antiinflammatory, analgesic and antioxidant activities of the fruit of Foeniculum vulgare. Fitoterapia, 75(6), 557-565.
• Fennel showed acaricidal activity against dust mites, likely from the fenchone and p-anisaldehyde constituents.  From:  Lee, H. S. (2004). Acaricidal activity of constituents identified in Foeniculum vulgare fruit oil against Dermatophagoides spp.(Acari: Pyroglyphidae). Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 52(10), 2887-2889.

INSOMNIA

• In a three month double blind randomized trial of 45 patients, a daily intranasal administration of diluted lavender and fennel essential oil reduced stress and insomnia.  From:  Polonini, H., Mesquita, D., Lanine, J., Dijkers, E., Gkinis, S., Raposo, N. R. B., … & de Oliveira Ferreira, A. (2020). Intranasal use of lavender and fennel decreases salivary cortisol levels and improves quality of sleep: a double-blind randomized clinical trial. European Journal of Integrative Medicine, 34, 101015.

By: Kathy Sadowski

Updated: 11/16/2020