Peppermint (Mentha piperita) Research

Latin Name: Mentha piperita

Family Name: Lamiaceae

There is a significant amount of research on peppermint (Mentha piperita).  It has shown to be beneficial as a digestive aid, respiratory aid, and to relief inflammation and muscle spasm and tension.  It’s menthol constituent has shown analgesic activity.  It has also shown antimicrobial, antioxidant, insecticidal, and repellent activities.  It may also be beneficial to improve cognition, reduce itching, to use to treat wounds, and more.

RESEARCH

The listings of research below represent a compilation of scientific articles found on the species, with a very brief overview description of each article/study.  Research found is catalogued by therapeutic action.  This categorized compilation of research articles does not necessarily imply that there are adequate results to demonstrate safe and/or effective human use.

GENERAL

• Tisserand, R. & Young, R. (2014).  Essential Oil Safety, Second Edition.  Churchill, Livingstone, Elsevier.
• The highest amount of rosmarinic acid content was found in Mentha species especially M. spicata.  From:  Shekarchi, M., Hajimehdipoor, H., Saeidnia, S., Gohari, A. R., & Hamedani, M. P. (2012). Comparative study of rosmarinic acid content in some plants of Labiatae family. Pharmacognosy magazine, 8(29), 37.
• Luteolin is a flavonoid found in carrots, peppers, celery, olive oil, peppermint, thyme, rosemary and oregano. This study reviews its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and anticancer activities. From:  López-Lázaro, M. (2009). Distribution and biological activities of the flavonoid luteolin. Mini reviews in medicinal chemistry, 9(1), 31-59.
• Lis-Balchin, M. (2006). Aromatherapy Science: A guide for healthcare professionals. London: Pharmaceutical Press.
• This article provided a summary of the therapeutic uses for peppermint and peppermint essential oil.  From:  Balakrishnan, A. (2015). Therapeutic Uses of Peppermint–A Review.  Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, 7(7), 474.
• This article reviewed the health benefits of peppermint (tea).  From:  McKay, D. L., & Blumberg, J. B. (2006). A review of the bioactivity and potential health benefits of peppermint tea (Mentha piperita L.). Phytotherapy Research, 20(8), 619-633.
• Petersen, D. (2015). Aromatherapy materia medica.  Essential oil monographs.  American College of Healthcare Sciences.
• Peppermint essential oil demonstrated antimicrobial, antioxidant, cholesterol lowering, and tumor cell cytotoxic activity.  From:  Sharafi, S. M., Rasooli, I., Owlia, P., Taghizadeh, M., & Astaneh, S. D. A. (2010). Protective effects of bioactive phytochemicals from Mentha piperita with multiple health potentials. Pharmacognosy magazine, 6(23), 147.
• This article provided a review on the uses of peppermint and peppermint essential oil.  From:  Spirling, L. I., & Daniels, I. R. (2001). Botanical perspectives on health peppermint: more than just an after-dinner mint. The journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health, 121(1), 62-63.
• WebMD. (n.d.).  Peppermint.  Retrieved in March, 2015.  Retrieved from www.webmd.com
• Witchl, M.  (2004).  Herbal Drugs and Phytopharmaceuticals.  A Handbook for Pratice on a Scientific Basis.  Third Edition.  Medpharm Scientific Publishers.

SAFETY

• Dilute essential oil with topical use. Topical use can cause skin irritation and contact dermatitis. Dilute with topical use and avoid mucus membranes, including nose, mouth, lips, and genitals.  A safe dilution ratio is 1-2% in a carrier oil.  This would equal about 6-12 drops in an ounce of carrier oil.  Lis-Balchin indicates that 1 of 200 patients showed a topical irritation and/or sensitization to peppermint and advises a high dilution ration.  From:  Lis-Balchin, M. (2006). Aromatherapy science: a guide for healthcare professionals. Pharmaceutical press.  Additional references:
  • Moghadam, B. K., Gier, R., & Thurlow, T. (1999). Extensive oral mucosal ulcerations caused by misuse of a commercial mouthwash. Cutis, 64(2), 131-134.
  • Tran, A., Pratt, M., & DeKoven, J. (2010). Acute allergic contact dermatitis of the lips from peppermint oil in a lip balm. Dermatitis, 21(2), 111-115.
  • Kalavala, M., Hughes, T. M., Goodwin, R. G., Anstey, A. V., & Stone, N. M. (2007). Allergic contact dermatitis to peppermint foot spray. Contact Dermatitis, 57(1), 57-58.
• Avoid essential oil topically on damaged or sensitive skin.
• Peppermint oil can cause hypersensitive reactions. Skin patch test before using, always dilute, and avoid internal use unless working with a Physician.  From:  Reynolds, J. E. (1982). Martindale: the extra pharmacopoeia. London, UK; The Pharmaceutical Press.
• Essential oil generally NOT for internal use. Mucus membrane irritant: consult Physician before internal use.  This includes the use of enteric coated capsules with peppermint.   Internal use can be very dangerous, with even just a few drops undiluted, having the potential to cause acute allergic response, asphyxiation, burning of the mucus membrane, and possible fatality in children (Lis-Balchin, 2006).  Further, overdose of menthol, as with menthol cigarettes or candies, especially over a long period of time, has been known to cause severe gastrointestinal issues, convulsions, and blood dyscrasias (Lis-Balchin, 2006).
  • AHA.org indicates that peppermint oil is a possible mucus membrane irritant at http://naha.org/explore-aromatherapy/safety/
  • Andersen, K. E. (1978). Contact allergy to toothpaste flavors. Contact Dermatitis, 4(4), 195-198.
  • Vermaat, H., Van Meurs, T., Rustemeyer, T., Bruynzeel, D. P., & Kirtschig, G. (2008). Vulval allergic contact dermatitis due to peppermint oil in herbal tea. Contact dermatitis, 58(6), 364-365.
  • Moghadam, B. K., Gier, R., & Thurlow, T. (1999). Extensive oral mucosal ulcerations caused by misuse of a commercial mouthwash. Cutis, 64(2), 131-134.
  • Morton, C. A., Garioch, J., Todd, P., Lamey, P. J., & Forsyth, A. (1995). Contact sensitivity to menthol and peppermint in patients with intra‐oral symptoms. Contact dermatitis, 32(5), 281-284.
  • Lawson, M. J., Knight, R. E., Tran, K., Walker, G., & ROBERTS‐THOMSON, I. C. (1988). Failure of enteric‐coated peppermint oil in the irritable bowel syndrome: A randomized, double‐blind crossover study. Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, 3(3), 235-238.
• NAHA. (n.d.).  Mucous Membrane Irritants.  Retrieved in December, 2015.  Retrieved from http://naha.org/explore-aromatherapy/safety/
• Essential oil Not for small children. Do not use with young children under five years old and do not use with older children near the face; as it can be neurotoxic.  There have been numerous reported cases of severe toxicty and even death of the use of peppermint with young children (Lis-Balchin, 2006).
• Essential oil Not for use during pregnancy and lactation due to insufficient medical evidence (Natural Medicines. (2017).  Peppermint Monograph.  Retrieved in August of 2017.  Retrieved from. www.naturalmedicines.com
• Contact Physician before use with medical conditions.
• Essential Oil is Flammable.
• Keep essential oil out of reach of children and pets.
• Do not use essential oil in excessive doses or for ongoing periods of time exceeding two weeks. The menthofuran constituent demonstrated liver toxicity and should not be used for excessive amounts of time or in excessive doses.  Always consult a Physician or expert with internal use.  From:  Khojasteh-Bakht, S. C., Chen, W., Koenigs, L. L., Peter, R. M., & Nelson, S. D. (1999). Metabolism of (R)-(+)-pulegone and (R)-(+)-menthofuran by human liver cytochrome P-450s: evidence for formation of a furan epoxide. Drug metabolism and disposition, 27(5), 574-580.  In addition, peppermint oil contains 1% – 4% pugelone: a neurotoxic and hepatotoxic constituent.  From:  Nair, B. (2001). Final report on the safety assessment of Mentha Piperita (Peppermint) Oil, Mentha Piperita (Peppermint) Leaf Extract, Mentha Piperita (Peppermint) Leaf, and Mentha Piperita (Peppermint) Leaf Water. International Journal of Toxicology, 20, 61-73.

ANTIMICROBIAL / ANTIBACTERIAL / ANTIFUNGAL

• The use of plant essential oils against antibiotic resistant microbes is discussed. Key essential oils include basil, cilantro, coriander, cinnamon, clove, curry, garlic, helichrysum, lavender, lemongrass, oregano, peppermint, and tea tree. From: Yang, S. K., Low, L. Y., Yap, P. S. X., Yusoff, K., Mai, C. W., Lai, K. S., & Lim, S. H. E. (2018). Plant-Derived Antimicrobials: Insights into Mitigation of Antimicrobial Resistance. Records of Natural Products, 12(4).

• In a mega-analysis of over 500 studies on essential oil antimicrobial activity, spices and herbs of thyme, origanum, mint, cinnamon, salvia and clove had the strongest antimicrobial properties. From:  Kalemba, D., & Kunicka, A. (2003). Antibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oils. Current medicinal chemistry, 10(10), 813-829.
• In vitro anti-candidal activity of Mentha piperita essential oil and its major constituents was demonstrated.  From:  Samber, N., Khan, A., Varma, A., & Manzoor, N. (2015). Synergistic anti-candidal activity and mode of action of Mentha piperita essential oil and its major components. Pharmaceutical biology, 53(10), 1496-1504.
• At high doses and undiluted, coriander, fennel, peppermint, dill, fir, juniper, rosemary, and lavender were active against E. coli, S. aureus, and Candida albicans.  From:   Şerban, E. S., Ionescu, M. I. H. A. E. L. A., Matinca, D. O. I. N. A., Maier, C. S., & Bojiţă, M. T. (2011). Screening of the antibacterial and antifungal activity of eight volatile essential oils. Farmacia, 59(3), 440-446.

• Prunella, peppermint, rosemary and thyme extracts provided antiviral activity against Herpes 1.  From:  Reichling, J., Nolkemper, S., Stintzing, F. C., & Schnitzler, P. (2008). Impact of ethanolic lamiaceae extracts on herpesvirus infectivity in cell culture. Forschende Komplementärmedizin/Research in Complementary Medicine, 15(6), 313-320.

• Rats were cured completely of the dermal fungi tested with peppermint oil.  From:  Soković, M. D., Glamočlija, J., Marin, P. D., Brkić, D. D., Vukojević, J., Jovanović, D., … & Kataranovski, D. (2006). Antifungal Activity of the Essential Oil of Mentha. x piperita. Pharmaceutical biology, 44(7), 511-515.

• Camphor, menthol, thymol and oil of Eucalyptus citriodora were the most efficacious components against the test toe fungus organisms.  From:  Ramsewak, R. S., Nair, M. G., Stommel, M., & Selanders, L. (2003). In vitro antagonistic activity of monoterpenes and their mixtures against toe nail fungus pathogens. Phytotherapy Research, 17(4), 376-379

• Palmarosa, lemongrass, peppermint, and eucalyptus were bactericidal against Escherichia coli.  From:  Pattnaik, S., Subramanyam, V. R., & Rath, C. C. (1994). Effect of essential oils on the viability and morphology of Escherichia coli (SP-11). Microbios, 84(340), 195-199.

• Mint showed in-vitro antifungal activity.  From:  Pandey, A. K. (2003). Composition and in-vitro antifungal activity of the essential oil of menthol mint (Mentha arvensis L.) growing in central India. Indian drugs, 40(2), 126-128.

• From 22 essential oils tested, cornmint, cumin, laurel, lemon peel, orange, oregano, and ziziphora were active against all assessed bacteria. From:  Kivanç, M., & Akgül, A. (1986). Antibacterial activities of essential oils from Turkish spices and citrus. Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 1(4‐5), 175-179.

• Extracts from lemon balm, peppermint, prunella, rosemary, sage, and thyme showed action against Herpes types 1 and 2.  From:  Nolkemper, S., Reichling, J., Stintzing, F. C., Carle, R., & Schnitzler, P. (2006). Antiviral effect of aqueous extracts from species of the Lamiaceae family against Herpes simplex virus type 1 and type 2 in vitro. Planta medica, 72(15), 1378-1382.

• Cinnamon, lemon thyme, thyme, honey myrtle, lavender, and fragonia demonstrated varying degrees of antibacterial activity against multiple tested pathogens. From: Durmic, Z., McSweeney, C. S., Kemp, G. W., Hutton, P., Wallace, R. J., & Vercoe, P. E. (2008). Australian plants with potential to inhibit bacteria and processes involved in ruminal biohydrogenation of fatty acids. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 145(1-4), 271-284.

• In a study of 30 different vaginal isolated strains of C. albicans to twelve essential oils, compared to the three of the mainly used drugs (clotrimazole, fluconazole, itraconazole), mint, basil, lavender, tea tree oil, winter savory and oregano essential oils inhibited both the growth and the activity of C. albicans more efficiently than clotrimazole.  From:  Bona, E., Cantamessa, S., Pavan, M., Novello, G., Massa, N., Rocchetti, A., … & Gamalero, E. (2016). Sensitivity of Candida albicans to essential oils: are they an alternative to antifungal agents?. Journal of Applied Microbiology.
• Mentha piperita (peppermint), M. spicata (spearmint), Thymus vulgaris (thyme), Origanum vulgare (oregano), O. applii (oregano), Aloysia triphylla (lemon verbena), Ocimum gratissimum (basil), and O. basilicum (basil) were studied and demonstrated varying degrees of antimicrobial activity.  From:  Sartoratto, A., Machado, A. L. M., Delarmelina, C., Figueira, G. M., Duarte, M. C. T., & Rehder, V. L. G. (2004). Composition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils from aromatic plants used in Brazil. Brazilian Journal of Microbiology, 35(4), 275-280.
• Origanum onites, Mentha piperita, Juniperus exalsa, Chrysanthemum indicum, Lavandula hybrida, Rosa damascena, Echinophora tenuifolia, and Foeniculum vulgare were tested for antimicrobial activity. From:  Andoğan, B. C., Baydar, H., Kaya, S., Demirci, M., Özbaşar, D., & Mumcu, E. (2002). Antimicrobial activity and chemical composition of some essential oils. Archives of pharmacal research, 25(6), 860-864

• Against oral bacteria, Australian tea tree, peppermint, and sage oil as well as the thymol and eugenol constituents were potent.  From:  Shapiro, S., Meier, A., & Guggenheim, B. (1994). The antimicrobial activity of essential oils and essential oil components towards oral bacteria. Oral microbiology and immunology, 9(4), 202-208.

• Antimicrobial activities of lavender, thyme, peppermint, cajeput, cinnamon, clove, eucalyptus, sage, and tea tree were summarized.  From:  Wińska, K., Mączka, W., Łyczko, J., Grabarczyk, M., Czubaszek, A., & Szumny, A. (2019). Essential Oils as Antimicrobial Agents—Myth or Real Alternative?. Molecules, 24(11), 2130.

• Peppermint essential oil might be an effective topical virucidal agent in recurrent herpes infection.  From:  Schuhmacher, A., Reichling, J., & Schnitzler, P. (2003). Virucidal effect of peppermint oil on the enveloped viruses herpes simplex virus type 1 and type 2 in vitro. Phytomedicine, 10(6), 504-510.

• Essential oils of cinnamon, peppermint, basil, origanum, clove, and thyme caused a total inhibition of fungal development on maize kernels without a phytotoxic effect.  From:  Montes-Belmont, R., & Carvajal, M. (1998). Control of Aspergillus flavus in maize with plant essential oils and their components. Journal of Food Protection®, 61(5), 616-619.

• The high fungistatic effects of clove and peppermint essential oils may be useful for treating skin fungi.  From:  El-Naghy, M. A., Maghazy, S. N., Fadl-Allah, E. M., & El-Gendy, Z. K. (1992). Fungistatic action of natural oils and fatty acids on dermatophytic and saprophytic fungi. Zentralblatt für Mikrobiologie, 147(3), 214-220.

• Melaleuca alternifolia, Thymus vulgaris, Mentha piperita and Rosmarinus officinalis were combined with conventional antimicrobials and assessed.  From:  Van Vuuren, S. F., Suliman, S., & Viljoen, A. M. (2009). The antimicrobial activity of four commercial essential oils in combination with conventional antimicrobials. Letters in applied microbiology, 48(4), 440-446.

• Orange, eucalyptus, fennel, geranium, juniper, peppermint, rosemary, purified turpentine, thyme, and Australian tea tree oil as well as the constituent of menthol showed antimicrobial and antiplasmid activities against the bacteria tested. From:  Schelz, Z., Molnar, J., & Hohmann, J. (2006). Antimicrobial and antiplasmid activities of essential oils. Fitoterapia, 77(4), 279-285.

• Thyme, mint, and bay showed activity against food poisoning bacteria: Salmonella typhimurium, Staphylococcus aureus and Vibrio parahaemolyticus.  From:  Aktuğ, Ş. E., & Karapinar, M. (1986). Sensitivity of some common food-poisoning bacteria to thyme, mint and bay leaves. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 3(6), 349-354.

• Rosmarinus officinalis, Mentha piperita and Melaleuca alternifolia inhibited Listeria monocytogenes growth.  From:  Sandasi, M., Leonard, C. M., & Viljoen, A. M. (2010). The in vitro antibiofilm activity of selected culinary herbs and medicinal plants against Listeria monocytogenes. Letters in applied microbiology, 50(1), 30-35.

• Thirty plant oils were tested and eucalyptus, peppermint, ginger grass and clove showed strong antifungal activity agaisnt candida albicans.  From:  Agarwal, V., Lal, P., & Pruthi, V. (2008). Prevention of Candida albicans biofilm by plant oils. Mycopathologia, 165(1), 13-19.

• Of 35 medicinal plants tested, the essential oils from 13 plants showed anti-Candida activity: Aloysia triphylla (lemon verbena), Anthemis nobilis (Roman chamomile), Cymbopogon martini (palmarosa), Cymbopogon winterianus (lemongrass), Cyperus articulatus, Cyperus rotundus, Lippia alba, Mentha arvensis, Mikania glomerata, Mentha piperita, Mentha sp., Stachys byzantina, and Solidago chilensis. From: Duarte, M. C. T., Figueira, G. M., Sartoratto, A., Rehder, V. L. G., & Delarmelina, C. (2005). Anti-Candida activity of Brazilian medicinal plants. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 97(2), 305-311.

• Sixteen essential oils and forty-two pure constituents were tested against Candida albicans. Origanum vulgare, Satureja montana, Mentha piperita, Cinnamomum verum, and Cymbopogon flexuosus along with the  pure constituents (by family) of , β-phellandrene, carvacrol, 1-decanol, and trans-cynnamaldehyde.  From:  Tampieri, M. P., Galuppi, R., Macchioni, F., Carelle, M. S., Falcioni, L., Cioni, P. L., & Morelli, I. (2005). The inhibition of Candida albicans by selected essential oils and their major components. Mycopathologia, 159(3), 339-345.

• Peppermint essential oil showed antibacterial action dependent upon concentration, food pH, composition, storage temperature and the type of bacteria.  From:  Tassou, C. C., Drosinos, E. H., & Nychas, G. J. E. (1995). Effects of essential oil from mint (Mentha piperita) on Salmonella enteritidis and Listeria monocytogenes in model food systems at 4 and 10 C. Journal of Applied Bacteriology, 78(6), 593-600.

• Thyme, origanum, clove, and orange essential oils were the most inhibitory against foodborne bacteria and yeasts. Cumin, tea tree, and mint also provided inhibition.  From:  Irkin, R., & Korukluoglu, M. (2009). Growth inhibition of pathogenic bacteria and some yeasts by selected essential oils and survival of L. monocytogenes and C. albicans in apple–carrot juice. Foodborne pathogens and disease, 6(3), 387-394.

• Oregano and mint were antifungal against Aspergillus ochraceus.  From:  Basilico, M. Z., & Basilico, J. C. (1999). Inhibitory effects of some spice essential oils on Aspergillus ochraceus NRRL 3174 growth and ochratoxin A production. Letters in Applied Microbiology, 29(4), 238-241.

• Peppermint essential oil strongly inhibited plant pathogenic microorganisms, and human pathogens were moderately inhibited, with menthol being the active constituent.  From:  Iscan, G., KIrimer, N. E. S. E., Kürkcüoglu, M., Baser, H. C., & DEMIrci, F. (2002). Antimicrobial screening of Mentha piperita essential oils. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 50(14), 3943-3946.

• Melissa officinalis, grapefruit mint, peppermint, basil, perilla, prunella, and winter savory showed potent anti-HIV-1 activity. From:  Yamasaki, K., Nakano, M., Kawahata, T., MORI, H., OTAKE, T., UEDA, N., … & MURATA, H. (1998). Anti-HIV-1 activity of herbs in Labiatae. Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 21(8), 829-833.

• Mentha piperita and Myrtus communis showed antimicrobial activities against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans. From:  Yadegarinia, D., Gachkar, L., Rezaei, M. B., Taghizadeh, M., Astaneh, S. A., & Rasooli, I. (2006). Biochemical activities of Iranian Mentha piperita L. and Myrtus communis L. essential oils. Phytochemistry, 67(12), 1249-1255.

• Thyme, sweet fennel, marjoram, mint, oregano, sage, savory, and thyme showed antibacterial activity against Bacillus species. From:  Özcan, M. M., Sagdıç, O., & Özkan, G. (2006). Inhibitory effects of spice essential oils on the growth of Bacillus species. Journal of medicinal food, 9(3), 418-421.

• Oregano, thyme, cinnamon bark, lemongrass, clove, palmarose, peppermint, lavender, geranium, Bourbon, and tea tree reduced fungus in heated footbath water.  From:  Inouye, S., Uchida, K., Nishiyama, Y., Hasumi, Y., Yamaguchi, H., & Abe, S. (2007). Combined effect of heat, essential oils and salt on the fungicidal activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes in foot bath. Nippon Ishinkin Gakkai Zasshi, 48(1), 27-36.

• Plant oils of 52 species were tested against key bacteria.  Lemongrass, oregano and bay inhibited all organisms, and rosewood, coriander, palmarosa, tea tree, niaouli, peppermint, spearmint, sage and marjoram inhibited all organisms except P. aeruginosa.  Carrot, patchouli, sandalwood and vetiver inhibited Gram-positive bacteria and C. albicans. Myrrh and cypress inhibited only Gram-positive organisms and mandarin oil inhibited only C. albicans.  From:  Hammer, K. A., Carson, C. F., & Riley, T. V. (1999). Antimicrobial activity of essential oils and other plant extracts. Journal of applied microbiology, 86(6), 985-990.

• Essential oils from Columbia of the Labiatae family showed the most anti-herpetic activity, with Lepechinia salvifolia (pitchersage), Hyptis mutabilis (bushmint), Lepechinia vulcanicola (pitchersage), Mintostachys mollis (mint) and Ocimum campechianum (basil) inhibiting activity during early stages of the herpes infection.  From:  Brand, Y. M., Roa-Linares, V. C., Betancur-Galvis, L. A., Durán-García, D. C., & Stashenko, E. (2016). Antiviral activity of Colombian Labiatae and Verbenaceae family essential oils and monoterpenes on Human Herpes viruses. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 28(2), 130-137.

• Essential oils of thyme, peppermint, pennyroyal, caraway, and fennel showed antibacterial activity against S. aureus and E. coli.  From:  Mohsenzadeh, M. (2007). Evaluation of antibacterial activity of selected Iranian essential oils against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli in nutrient broth medium. Pak J Biol Sci, 10(20), 3693-3697.

• Mentha piperita (peppermint), Mentha pulegium (pennyroyal), Mentha spicata (spearmint), Pelargonium graveolens (geranuim), Rosmarinus officinalis (rosemary), Thymus leptobotrys (thyme), Thymus pallidus (thyme), Thymus satureioides (thyme) and Citrus limon (lemon) essential oils of Morrocco  were steam distilled and minimum inhibitory concentrations were assessed against ten bacteria strains (Enterobacter cloacae, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella Typhimurium, Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Enterococcus faecalis, Streptococcus equinus and Streptococcus pyogenes), two yeasts (Candida albicans and Candida glabrata) and two fungi (Aspergillus niger and Penicillium funiculosum). Two thyme species showed the strongest  antimicrobial properties while peppermint, spearmint and T. pallidus gave intermediary results.   From:  El Asbahani, A., Jilale, A., Voisin, S. N., Aït Addi, E. H., Casabianca, H., El Mousadik, A., … & Renaud, F. N. (2015). Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of nine essential oils obtained by steam distillation of plants from the Souss-Massa Region (Morocco). Journal of Essential Oil Research, 27(1), 34-44.

• Tea tree, lavender, mint, thyme, and juniper showed varying degrees of in-vitro action against S. aureus.  From:  Nelson, R. R. (1997). In-vitro activities of five plant essential oils against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 40(2), 305-306.

• Nine plant spice essential oils were tested on various microorganisms (Salmonella typhimurium, Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Yersinia enterocolitica, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida rugosa, Rhizopus oryzae and Aspergillus niger and showed antimicrobial activity and may be used to combat pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms, and improve shelf-life of foods.  They included: savory, laurel, oregano, basil, cumin, sea fennel, myrtle,and mint.  From:  Özcan, M., & Erkmen, O. (2001). Antimicrobial activity of the essential oils of Turkish plant spices. European Food Research and Technology, 212(6), 658-660.

• Hyptis atrorubens (bushmint), and its constituents: methyl rosmarinate and rosmarinic acid demonstrated bactericidal power.  From:  Abedini, A., Roumy, V., Mahieux, S., Biabiany, M., Standaert-Vitse, A., Rivière, C., … & Hennebelle, T. (2013). Rosmarinic acid and its methyl ester as antimicrobial components of the hydromethanolic extract of Hyptis atrorubens Poit.(Lamiaceae). Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2013.

• Origanum vulgare (oregano), Thymus vulgaris (thyme), Lavandula angustifolia (lavender) , Mentha piperita (peppermint), and Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) were tested against 32 erythromycin-resistant streptococci; oregano, thyme, and the carvacrol constituent showed the strongest antimicrobial activity.  From:  Magi, G., Marini, E., & Facinelli, B. (2015). Antimicrobial activity of essential oils and carvacrol, and synergy of carvacrol and erythromycin, against clinical, erythromycin-resistant Group A Streptococci. Frontiers in microbiology, 6, 165.

• Peppermint and spearmint were effective against the proliferation of Helicobacter pylori, Salmonella enteritidis, Escherichia coli O157:H7, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and methicillin sensitive Staphylococccus aureus (MSSA). From:  Imai, H., Osawa, K., Yasuda, H., Hamashima, H., Arai, T., & Sasatsu, M. (2000). Inhibition by the essential oils of peppermint and spearmint of the growth of pathogenic bacteria. Microbios, 106, 31-39.

• Citrus aurantium (bergamot), C. limon (lemon), Lavandula angustifolia (lavender), Matricaria chamomilla (chamomile), Mentha piperita (peppermint), M. spicata (spearmint), Ocimum basilicum (basil), Origanum vulgare(oregano), Thymus vulgaris (thyme), and Salvia officinalis (sage) along with their constituents were tested against human pathogenic bacteria.  The highest and broadest activity was shown by O. vulgare oil and carvacrol had the highest antibacterial activity among the tested constituents. Other significant constituents included: camphor, 1,8-cineole, linalool, linalyl acetate, limonene, menthol, a-pinene, b-pinene, and thymol.  From:  Soković, M., Glamočlija, J., Marin, P. D., Brkić, D., & van Griensven, L. J. (2010). Antibacterial effects of the essential oils of commonly consumed medicinal herbs using an in vitro model. Molecules, 15(11), 7532-7546.

• Aegle, ageratum, citronella, eucalyptus, geranium, lemongrass, orange, palmarosa, patchouli and peppermint, were tested for antibacterial activity against 22 bacteria, and twelve fungi. From: Pattnaik, S., Subramanyam, V. R., & Kole, C. (1995). Antibacterial and antifungal activity of ten essential oils in vitro. Microbios, 86(349), 237-246.

• Lemon balm (Melissa officinalis), peppermint (Mentha × piperita), and sage (Salvia officinalis) exhibited a high and concentration-dependent activity against the HIV-1 infection.  From:  Geuenich, S., Goffinet, C., Venzke, S., Nolkemper, S., Baumann, I., Plinkert, P., … & Keppler, O. T. (2008). Aqueous extracts from peppermint, sage and lemon balm leaves display potent anti-HIV-1 activity by increasing the virion density. Retrovirology, 5(1), 1.
• Peppermint essential oil demonstrated antifungal activity.  From:  Saharkhiz, M. J., Motamedi, M., Zomorodian, K., Pakshir, K., Miri, R., & Hemyari, K. (2012). Chemical composition, antifungal and antibiofilm activities of the essential oil of Mentha piperita L. ISRN pharmaceutics, 2012.

• Against the oral bacteria: Streptococcus mutans, Porphyromonas gingivalis, and Lactobacillus rhamnosus, the 13 most effective essential oils were: myrrh, ginger, basil, carrot seed, tea tree, patchouli, ylang ylang, cypress, lemongrass, cinnamon, peppermint, lavender, and eucalyptus. From: Park, C., & Yoon, H. (2018). Antimicrobial Activity of Essential Oil against Oral Strain. International Journal of Clinical Preventive Dentistry, 14(4), 216-221.

• Thirty essential oils were tested against pathogenic plant bacteria. Ceylon cinnamon (leaf and bark), oregano, clove bud, palmarosa, basil, peppermint, rosemary, blue gum, camphor, lemongrass, aniseed, ylang ylang, silver fir, lemon, dwarf mountain pine, bay laurel, scots pine, black cumin, Indian frankincense, bergamot orange, common juniper, bitter orange, and neem showed varying degrees of reaction.  From: Popović, T., Milićević, Z., Oro, V., Kostić, I., Radović, V., Jelušić, A., & Krnjajić, S. (2018). A preliminary study of antibacterial activity of thirty essential oils against several important plant pathogenic bacteria. Pesticidi i fitomedicina, 33(3-4), 185-195.

• The following essential oils were tested and showed varying degrees of antimicrobial, antifungal, antibacterial, and antiviral activities: Anethum graveolens, Foeniculum vulgare, Mentha piperita, Mentha spicata, Lavandula officinalis, Ocimum basilicum, Origanum onites, O. vulgare, O. munitiflorum, O. majorana, Rosmarinus officinalis, Salvia officinalis, and Satureja cuneifolia. From: Orhan, İlkay Erdoğan, et al. “Antimicrobial and antiviral effects of essential oils from selected Umbelliferae and Labiatae plants and individual essential oil components.” Turkish Journal of Biology 36.3 (2012): 239-246.

​PRESERVATIVE

• Thyme, mint, and bay showed activity against food poisoning bacteria: Salmonella typhimurium, Staphylococcus aureus and Vibrio parahaemolyticus.  From:  Aktuğ, Ş. E., & Karapinar, M. (1986). Sensitivity of some common food-poisoning bacteria to thyme, mint and bay leaves. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 3(6), 349-354.
• Thyme, origanum, clove, and orange essential oils were the most inhibitory against foodborne bacteria and yeasts. Cumin, tea tree, and mint also provided inhibition.  From:  Irkin, R., & Korukluoglu, M. (2009). Growth inhibition of pathogenic bacteria and some yeasts by selected essential oils and survival of L. monocytogenes and C. albicans in apple–carrot juice. Foodborne pathogens and disease, 6(3), 387-394.
• Peppermint essential oil showed antibacterial action dependent upon concentration, food pH, composition, storage temperature and the type of bacteria.  From:  Tassou, C. C., Drosinos, E. H., & Nychas, G. J. E. (1995). Effects of essential oil from mint (Mentha piperita) on Salmonella enteritidis and Listeria monocytogenes in model food systems at 4 and 10 C. Journal of Applied Bacteriology, 78(6), 593-600.
• Nine plant spice essential oils were tested on various microorganisms (Salmonella typhimurium, Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Yersinia enterocolitica, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida rugosa, Rhizopus oryzae and Aspergillus niger and showed antimicrobial activity and may be used to combat pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms, and improve shelf-life of foods.  They included: savory, laurel, oregano, basil, cumin, sea fennel, myrtle,and mint.  From:  Özcan, M., & Erkmen, O. (2001). Antimicrobial activity of the essential oils of Turkish plant spices. European Food Research and Technology, 212(6), 658-660.

• Essential oils of cilantro, coriander, cinnamon, oregano, rosemary, sage, clove, thyme, lemongrass, turmeric, mint, basil, and constituents of linalool, cinnamaldehyde, carvacrol, thymol, terpinene, cymene, alpha/beta pinene, bornyl acetate, camphor, 1,8-cineole, alpha terpeneol, geraniol, perrilaldehyde, and eugenol have demonstrated food preserving potential.  From:  Burt, S. (2004). Essential oils: their antibacterial properties and potential applications in foods—a review. International journal of food microbiology, 94(3), 223-253.

ANTIOXIDANT

• Melissa officinalis, Mentha piperita, and Origanum vulgare demonstrated varying degrees of antioxidant activity depending on fresh or dried, and related to phenolic constituents.  From:  Capecka, E., Mareczek, A., & Leja, M. (2005). Antioxidant activity of fresh and dry herbs of some Lamiaceae species. Food chemistry, 93(2), 223-226.

• Mentha piperita extracts showed antioxidant activities.  From:  Dorman, H. J., Koşar, M., Başer, K. H., & Hiltunen, R. (2009). Phenolic profile and antioxidant evaluation of Mentha x piperita L.(peppermint) extracts. Natural product communications, 4(4), 535-542.

• The following dried herbs tested contained high amounts of antioxidant content:  oregano, sage, peppermint, thyme, lemon balm, clove, allspice, cinnamon, and a few additional Chinese medicinal herbs.   From:  Dragland, S., Senoo, H., Wake, K., Holte, K., & Blomhoff, R. (2003). Several culinary and medicinal herbs are important sources of dietary antioxidants. The Journal of nutrition, 133(5), 1286-1290.

• Mint species demonstrated antimicrobial and antioxidant capacity with the most powerful scavenging compounds being menthone and isomenthone in the essential oils of M. longifolia and M. piperita and 1,8-cineole in the oil of M. aquatica.  From:  Mimica-Dukić, N., Božin, B., Soković, M., Mihajlović, B., & Matavulj, M. (2003). Antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of three Mentha species essential oils. Planta medica, 69(05), 413-419.

• Peppermint were antigenotoxic in mice related to antioxidant activity.  From:  Samarth, R. M., Panwar, M., & Kumar, A. (2006). Modulatory effects of Mentha piperita on lung tumor incidence, genotoxicity, and oxidative stress in benzo [a] pyrene‐treated Swiss albino mice. Environmental and molecular mutagenesis, 47(3), 192-198.

• Peppermint essential oil exhibited antioxidant activity.  From:  Schmidt, E., Bail, S., Buchbauer, G., Stoilova, I., Atanasova, T., Stoyanova, A., … & Jirovetz, L. (2009). Chemical composition, olfactory evaluation and antioxidant effects of essential oil from Mentha x piperita. Natural product communications, 4(8), 1107-1112.

• Compounds in peppermint provided antiradical and antioxidant activity.  From:  Sroka, Z., Fecka, I., & Cisowski, W. (2005). Antiradical and anti-H2O2 properties of polyphenolic compounds from an aqueous peppermint extract. Zeitschrift für Naturforschung C, 60(11-12), 826-832.
• Phenolic content was associated with antioxidant properties of multiple mint species.  From:  Dorman, H. D., Koşar, M., Kahlos, K., Holm, Y., & Hiltunen, R. (2003). Antioxidant properties and composition of aqueous extracts from Mentha species, hybrids, varieties, and cultivars. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 51(16), 4563-4569.
• Tea preparations from the following plants showed in vitro antidiabetic, antioxidant activities: green tea, peppermint, black, thyme, olive leaf, sage, absinthium, blackberry, and roselle.  From:  Büyükbalci, A., & El, S. N. (2008). Determination of in vitro antidiabetic effects, antioxidant activities and phenol contents of some herbal teas. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, 63(1), 27-33.

ORAL HEALTH

• Hospice patients with terminal cancer had improved oral health with using a mixture including geranium, lavender, tea tree, and peppermint essential oil.  From:  Kang, H. Y., Na, S. S., & Kim, Y. K. (2010). Effects of Oral Care with Essential Oil on Improvement in Oral Health Status of Hospice Patients. Journal of Korean Academy of Nursing, 40(4)
• A peppermint mouth rinse taken 3 times a day for one week reduced bad breath in a study with 84 students ages 14-18 years.  From:  Haghgoo, R., & Abbasi, F. (2013). Evaluation of the use of a peppermint mouth rinse for halitosis by girls studying in Tehran high schools. Journal of International Society of Preventive & Community Dentistry, 3(1), 29.
• An essential oil solution with tea tree, peppermint, and lemon reduced bad breath in patients.  From:  Hur, M. H., Park, J., Maddock‐Jennings, W., Kim, D. O., & Lee, M. S. (2007). Reduction of mouth malodour and volatile sulphur compounds in intensive care patients using an essential oil mouthwash. Phytotherapy Research, 21(7), 641-643.
• Against oral bacteria, Australian tea tree, peppermint, and sage oil as well as the thymol and eugenol constituents were potent.  From:  Shapiro, S., Meier, A., & Guggenheim, B. (1994). The antimicrobial activity of essential oils and essential oil components towards oral bacteria. Oral microbiology and immunology, 9(4), 202-208.
• A product containing aloe vera and peppermint was taken for 5 days by patients in intensive care. It relieved mouth dryness, prevented dental plaque formation, and improved oral health compared to the placebo.  Atashi, V., Yazdannik, A., Mahjobipoor, H., Ghafari, S., Bekhradi, R., & Yousefi, H. (2018). The effects of Aloe vera-Peppermint (Veramin) moisturizing gel on mouth dryness and oral health among patients hospitalized in intensive care units: A triple-blind randomized placebo-controlled trial. Journal of research in pharmacy practice, 7(2), 104.
• An herbal mouthwash containing Salvadora persica (toothbrush tree), Terminalia bellerica (bahera), Piper betle (betel), Gaultheria fragrantissima (Indian Wintergreen), Elettaria cardamomum (cardamom), Peppermint satva (peppermint), and Trachyspermum ammi (ajowan) was assessed in this randomized study of 90 nursing students.  It improved plaque and gingivitis issues over this 21 day study.  From:  Bagchi, S., Saha, S., Jagannath, G., Reddy, V., & Sinha, P. (2015). Evaluation of efficacy of a commercially available herbal mouthwash on dental plaque and gingivitis: A double-blinded parallel randomized controlled trial. Journal of Indian Association of Public Health Dentistry, 13(3), 222-222.
• In a study with 100 dental student volunteers, an herbal toothpaste containing chamomile, echinacea, sage, rhatany, myrrh and peppermint oil was just as effective as typical commercial toothpaste in oral hygiene measures.  From:  Mitra, D., Shah, S., Shah, R., Rodrigues, S., Pathare, P., & Vijayakar, H. (2015). Evaluation of the Clinical Efficacy of a Herbal Toothpaste in Comparison with a Triclosan Containing Toothpaste in a Population of Dental College Students–A Double-blind Randomized Controlled Trial. Indian Journal of Contemporary Dentistry, 3(2), 67-70.
• Peppermint leaf extract showed antimicrobial activity against tested oral microorganisms. From:  Raghavan, R., Devi, M. P. S., Varghese, M., Joseph, A., Madhavan, S. S., & Sreedevi, P. V. (2018). Effectiveness of Mentha piperita Leaf Extracts against Oral Pathogens: An in vitro Study. The journal of contemporary dental practice, 19(9), 1042-1046.

• Against the oral bacteria: Streptococcus mutans, Porphyromonas gingivalis, and Lactobacillus rhamnosus, the 13 most effective essential oils were: myrrh, ginger, basil, carrot seed, tea tree, patchouli, ylang ylang, cypress, lemongrass, cinnamon, peppermint, lavender, and eucalyptus. From: Park, C., & Yoon, H. (2018). Antimicrobial Activity of Essential Oil against Oral Strain. International Journal of Clinical Preventive Dentistry, 14(4), 216-221.

• In a randomized controlled clinical study with 40 patients having moderate or severe periodontitis, an herbal mouthwash was assessed compared to a placebo. Both were taken twice a day for two minutes for 3 months. The herbal mouthwash contained Propolis resin extract, Plantago lanceolata, Salvia officinalis leaves extract, and 1.75% of essential oils (Salvia officinalis, Syzygium aromaticum buds, Mentha piperita leaves, Commiphora myrrha oleoresin and Pistacia lentiscus oleoresin). Results showed the herbal mouthwash reduced bleeding and plaque. From: Sparabombe, S., Monterubbianesi, R., Tosco, V., Orilisi, G., Hosein, A., Ferrante, L., … & Orsini, G. (2019). Efficacy of an all-natural polyherbal mouthwash in patients with periodontitis: a single-blind randomized controlled trial. Frontiers in physiology, 10, 632.

MOUTH COLD SORES

• Peppermint essential oil might be an effective topical virucidal agent in recurrent herpes infection.  From:  Schuhmacher, A., Reichling, J., & Schnitzler, P. (2003). Virucidal effect of peppermint oil on the enveloped viruses herpes simplex virus type 1 and type 2 in vitro. Phytomedicine, 10(6), 504-510.
• Essential oils from Columbia of the Labiatae family showed the most anti-herpetic activity, with Lepechinia salvifolia (pitchersage), Hyptis mutabilis (bushmint), Lepechinia vulcanicola (pitchersage), Mintostachys mollis (mint) and Ocimum campechianum (basil) inhibiting activity during early stages of the herpes infection.  From:  Brand, Y. M., Roa-Linares, V. C., Betancur-Galvis, L. A., Durán-García, D. C., & Stashenko, E. (2016). Antiviral activity of Colombian Labiatae and Verbenaceae family essential oils and monoterpenes on Human Herpes viruses. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 28(2), 130-137.
• Lemon balm (Melissa officinalis), peppermint (Mentha × piperita), and sage (Salvia officinalis) exhibited a high and concentration-dependent activity against the HIV-1 infection.  From:  Geuenich, S., Goffinet, C., Venzke, S., Nolkemper, S., Baumann, I., Plinkert, P., … & Keppler, O. T. (2008). Aqueous extracts from peppermint, sage and lemon balm leaves display potent anti-HIV-1 activity by increasing the virion density. Retrovirology, 5(1), 1.

RADIOPROTECTIVE

• Oral intake of peppermint essential oil  before exposure to gamma radiation was effective in protecting against chromosomal damage of  bone marrow in mice. From:  Samarth, R. M., & Kumar, A. (2003). Mentha piperita (Linn.) leaf extract provides protection against radiation induced chromosomal damage in bone marrow of mice. Indian journal of experimental biology, 41(3), 229-237

INSECTICIDAL / REPELLENT / PESTICIDAL / ANTIPARASITE

• Anise (Pimpinella anisum), eucalyptus (Eucalyptus camaldulensis), mint (Mentha piperita) basil (Ocimum basilicum) and laurel (Laurus nobilis) were tested and demonstrated repellency against Culex pipiens, with the eucalyptus, basil and anise being the most active.  From:  Erler, F., Ulug, I., & Yalcinkaya, B. (2006). Repellent activity of five essential oils against Culex pipiens. Fitoterapia, 77(7), 491-494.

• ​Eucalyptus, geranium, lavender, and mint showed varying degrees of repellency against the bloodsucking bug Rhodnius prolixus Stahl.  The knockdown time of nymphs in minutes by constituents was 117.2 (eucalyptol), 408.7 (linalool), 474.0 (menthone), and 484.2 (limonene). While the repellent effect was quite lesser than that of deet, eucalyptol was 3.5 times less toxic.  From:  Sfara, V., Zerba, E. N., & Alzogaray, R. A. (2009). Fumigant insecticidal activity and repellent effect of five essential oils and seven monoterpenes on first-instar nymphs of Rhodnius prolixus. Journal of medical entomology, 46(3), 511-515.

• Apium graveolens (celery), Citrus sinensis (orange), Eucalyptus globulus (eucalyptus), Juniperus oxycedrus (juniper), Laurus nobilis (bay), Lavandula hybrida (lavender) , Mentha microphylla (mint), Mentha viridis (spearmint), Ocimum basilicum (basil), Origanum vulgare (oregano), Pistacia terebinthus (turpentine tree), Rosmarinus officinalis (rosemary), and Thuja orientalis (thuja) were effective insect repellents against Acanthoscelides obtectus.  From:  Papachristos, D. P., & Stamopoulos, D. C. (2002). Repellent, toxic and reproduction inhibitory effects of essential oil vapours on Acanthoscelides obtectus (Say)(Coleoptera: Bruchidae). Journal of Stored Products Research, 38(2), 117-128.

• The following plant oils showed repellent activity against the mosquito Aedes aegypti:  Acantholippia seriphioides, Achyrocline satureioides, Aloysia citriodora (lemon verbena), Anemia tomentosa, Baccharis spartioides, Chenopodium ambrosioides, Eucalyptus saligna, Hyptis mutabilis, Minthostachys mollis (mint), Rosmarinus officinalis (rosemary), Tagetes minuta and Tagetes pusilla (marigold). From:  Gillij, Y. G., Gleiser, R. M., & Zygadlo, J. A. (2008). Mosquito repellent activity of essential oils of aromatic plants growing in Argentina. Bioresource technology, 99(7), 2507-2515.

• Peppermint oil on human skin was effective against three mosquito species.  From:  Ansari, M. A., Vasudevan, P., Tandon, M., & Razdan, R. K. (2000). Larvicidal and mosquito repellent action of peppermint (Mentha piperita) oil. Bioresource Technology, 71(3), 267-271.

• Peppermint essential oil is proved to be a very effective larvicide and repellent against dengue vector mosquitoes.  From: Kumar, S., Wahab, N., & Warikoo, R. (2011). Bioefficacy of Mentha piperita essential oil against dengue fever mosquito Aedes aegypti L. Asian Pacific journal of tropical biomedicine, 1(2), 85-88.

• Beta farnesene in peppermint confuses aphid phermones.  From:  Crock, J., Wildung, M., & Croteau, R. (1997). Isolation and bacterial expression of a sesquiterpene synthase cDNA clone from peppermint (Mentha x piperita, L.) that produces the aphid alarm pheromone (E)-β-farnesene. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 94(24), 12833-12838.

• Of 53 tested plant oils, bay, caraway seed, clove leaf, lemon eucalyptus, lime, pennyroyal, peppermint, rosewood, spearmint, and tea tree oils were highly effective against the greenhouse whitefly. From:  Choi, W. I., Lee, E. H., Choi, B. R., Park, H. M., & Ahn, Y. J. (2003). Toxicity of plant essential oils to Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae). Journal of Economic Entomology, 96(5), 1479-1484.

• Against larvae Spodoptera littoralis the following oils showed insecticidal activity: catnip,  white cedar, clary sage, thyme,  marjoram, patchouli, pennyroyal, lemon mint, Melissa, and lavender.  From: Pavela, R. (2005). Insecticidal activity of some essential oils against larvae of Spodoptera littoralis. Fitoterapia, 76(7), 691-696.

• The following essential oils showed fumigant potential against these mites: Tetranychus urticae and Phytoseiulus persimilis:  caraway seed, citronella, java, lemon eucalyptus, pennyroyal, peppermint, sage, spearmint.  From: Choi, W. I., Lee, S. G., Park, H. M., & Ahn, Y. J. (2004). Toxicity of plant essential oils to Tetranychus urticae (Acari: Tetranychidae) and Phytoseiulus persimilis (Acari: Phytoseiidae). Journal of Economic Entomology, 97(2), 553-558.
• Lice infesting of buffaloes was significantly reduced after treatment with camphor, peppermint, chamomile, and onion and rosemary essential oils. Moreover, the oils significantly repelled fly species:  Musca domestica, Stomoxys calcitrans, Haematobia irritans and Hippobosca equina.  From: Khater, H. F., Ramadan, M. Y., & El-Madawy, R. S. (2009). Lousicidal, ovicidal and repellent efficacy of some essential oils against lice and flies infesting water buffaloes in Egypt. Veterinary parasitology, 164(2), 257-266.
• Peppermint showed antigiardial activity against the parasite. From:  Vidal, F., Vidal, J. C., Gadelha, A. P. R., Lopes, C. S., Coelho, M. G. P., & Monteiro-Leal, L. H. (2007). Giardia lamblia: the effects of extracts and fractions from Mentha x piperita Lin.(Lamiaceae) on trophozoites. Experimental parasitology, 115(1), 25-31.
• Essential oils from the following plants and their effectiveness as a mosquito repellent was reviewed:  Cymbopogon nardus, Eucalyptus maculata, Cymbopogon excavatus, Mentha piperita, and Azadirachta indica.  From:  Gupta, D. K., Chouhan, M., & Gupta, R. A. (2018). Herbal Mosquito Repellent Formulation from the Essential Oil: A Review. International Journal of Pharmacy & Life Sciences, 9(2).

• Litsea cubeba (10%), Mentha arvensis (10%) along with vanillin (5%) and tween (5%) in alcohol (70%) showed 4 hours of skin repellency against the mosquito: Aedes albopictus. From: Wu, H., Zhang, M., & Yang, Z. (2019). Repellent activity screening of 12 essential oils against Aedes albopictus Skuse: Repellent liquid preparation of Mentha arvensis and Litsea cubeba oils and bioassay on hand skin. Industrial crops and products, 128, 464-470.

​ANTI-NAUSEA

• In a study of 25 patients who were also using other medicines, a synergistic blend of Pimpinella anisum (anise), Foeniculum vulgare (sweet fennel), Anthemis nobilis (Roman chamomile) and Mentha piperita (peppermint) resulted in  nausea relief.  From:  Gilligan, N. P. (2005). The palliation of nausea in hospice and palliative care patients with essential oils of Pimpinella anisum (aniseed), Foeniculum vulgare var. dulce (sweet fennel), Anthemis nobilis (Roman chamomile) and Mentha x piperita (peppermint). International Journal of Aromatherapy, 15(4), 163-167.

• In a double blind study of 322 postoperative patients, aromatherapy with ginger and peppermint significantly reduced nausea. From: Fearrington, M. A., Qualls, B. W., & Carey, M. G. (2019). Essential Oils to Reduce Postoperative Nausea and Vomiting. Journal of PeriAnesthesia Nursing.

• In a single blind, randomized, controlled trial, 26 patients who performed controlled breathing with peppermint aroma showed reduced postoperative nausea compared to 16 patients who just performed controlled breathing. From: Sites, D. S., Johnson, N. T., Miller, J. A., Torbush, P. H., Hardin, J. S., Knowles, S. S., … & Tart, R. C. (2014). Controlled breathing with or without peppermint aromatherapy for postoperative nausea and/or vomiting symptom relief: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of PeriAnesthesia Nursing, 29(1), 12-19.

• Peppermint oil and menthol exert an antiemetic effect in vitro.  From:  Heimes, K., Hauk, F., & Verspohl, E. J. (2011). Mode of action of peppermint oil and (‐)‐menthol with respect to 5‐HT3 receptor subtypes: binding studies, cation uptake by receptor channels and contraction of isolated rat ileum. Phytotherapy Research, 25(5), 702-708.

• Peppermint essential oil inhalation may be useful in treating postoperative nausea.  From:  Lane, B., Cannella, K., Bowen, C., Copelan, D., Nteff, G., Barnes, K., … & Lawson, J. (2012). Examination of the effectiveness of peppermint aromatherapy on nausea in women post C-section. Journal of Holistic Nursing, 30(2), 90-104.

• In a randomized study with 121 patients having postoperative nausea, a blend of lavender, ginger, peppermint, and spearmint in a portable inhaler was effective and well received by patients. From: Hodge, N. S., McCarthy, M. S., & Pierce, R. M. (2014). A prospective randomized study of the effectiveness of aromatherapy for relief of postoperative nausea and vomiting. Journal of PeriAnesthesia Nursing, 29(1), 5-11.

• Peppermint essential oil reduced postoperative nausea.  From:  Tate, S. (1997). Peppermint oil: a treatment for postoperative nausea. Journal of advanced nursing, 26(3), 543-549.
• Peppermint and spearmint reduced chemotherapy induced nausea and vomiting.  From:  Tayarani-Najaran, Z., Talasaz-Firoozi, E., Nasiri, R., Jalali, N., & Hassanzadeh, M. K. (2013). Antiemetic activity of volatile oil from Mentha spicata and Mentha× piperita in chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting. ecancermedicalscience, 7, 290.
• Peppermint essential oil was effective in reducing abdominal pain in diarrhea predominant IBS transiently. From:  Alam, M. S., Roy, P. K., Miah, A. R., Mollick, S. H., Khan, M. R., Mahmud, M. C., & Khatun, S. (2013). Efficacy of Peppermint oil in diarrhea predominant IBS-a double blind randomized placebo-controlled study. Mymensingh medical journal: MMJ, 22(1), 27-30.

ANTI-ULCER

• Seventeen randomized clinical trials for the herbal treatment of non-ulcer dyspepsia were reviews.  Nine studies involved peppermint and caraway and showed promising results.  More research is necessary.  From:  Thompson Coon, J., & Ernst, E. (2002). Herbal medicinal products for non‐ulcer dyspepsia. Alimentary pharmacology & therapeutics, 16(10), 1689-1699.

• Extracts from Iberis amara (candytuft), Melissa officinalis (Melissa), Matricaria recutita (chamomile), Carum carvi (caraway), Mentha piperita (peppermint), Glycyrrhtza glabra (licorice), Angelica archangelica (Angelica), Silybum marianum (milk thistle), and Chelidonium majus (celandines) demonstrated in vivo antiulcer activity alone and as a combined furomulation. From: Khayyal, M. T., El-Ghazaly, M. A., Kenawy, S. A., Seif-El-Nasr, M., Mahran, L. G., Kafafi, Y. A., & Okpanyi, S. N. (2001). Antiulcerogenic effect of some gastrointestinally acting plant extracts and their combination. Arzneimittelforschung, 51(07), 545-553.

CONSTIPATION

• Peppermint increased bile flow in rats.  From:  Trabace, L., Avato, P., Mazzoccoli, M., & Siro‐Brigiani, G. (1994). Cholertic activity of Thapsia chem I, II, and III in rats: Comparison with terpenoid constituents and peppermint oil. Phytotherapy Research, 8(5), 305-307.
• An essential oil blend including rosemary, lemon, and peppermint rubbed on the abdomine reduced constipation in the elderly.  From:  Kim, M. A., Sakong, J. K., Kim, E. J., & Kim, E. H. (2005). Effect of aromatherapy massage for the relief of constipation in the elderly. Taehan Kanho Hakhoe Chi, 35(1), 56-64.

​DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AID

• Seventeen randomized clinical trials for the herbal treatment of non-ulcer dyspepsia were reviews.  Nine studies involved peppermint and caraway and showed promising results.  More research is necessary.  From:  Thompson Coon, J., & Ernst, E. (2002). Herbal medicinal products for non‐ulcer dyspepsia. Alimentary pharmacology & therapeutics, 16(10), 1689-1699.

• Helicobacter pylori causes gastritis and peptic ulcer disease. Botanical extracts that were most effective against H. pylori included:  Carum carvi, Elettaria cardamomum, Gentiana lutea, Juniper communis, Lavandula angustifolia, Melissa officinalis, Mentha piperita, Pimpinella anisum, Matricaria recutita, and Ginkgo biloba.  From:  Mahady, G. B., Pendland, S. L., Stoia, A., Hamill, F. A., Fabricant, D., Dietz, B. M., & Chadwick, L. R. (2005). In vitro susceptibility of Helicobacter pylori to botanical extracts used traditionally for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders. Phytotherapy research, 19(11), 988-991.

• Enteric coated peppermint capsules reduced irritable bowel syndrome symptoms in humans.  From:  Merat, S., Khalili, S., Mostajabi, P., Ghorbani, A., Ansari, R., & Malekzadeh, R. (2010). The effect of enteric-coated, delayed-release peppermint oil on irritable bowel syndrome. Digestive diseases and sciences, 55(5), 1385-1390.

• Peppermint essential oil was effective in reducing abdominal pain in diarrhea predominant IBS transiently.  From:  Alam, M. S., Roy, P. K., Miah, A. R., Mollick, S. H., Khan, M. R., Mahmud, M. C., & Khatun, S. (2013). Efficacy of Peppermint oil in diarrhea predominant IBS-a double blind randomized placebo-controlled study. Mymensingh medical journal: MMJ, 22(1), 27-30.

• Peppermint capsules reduced symptoms of irritable bowels. From: Cappello, G., Spezzaferro, M., Grossi, L., Manzoli, L., & Marzio, L. (2007). Peppermint oil (Mintoil®) in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome: a prospective double blind placebo-controlled randomized trial. Digestive and liver disease, 39(6), 530-536.

• Peppermint was studied to treat irritable bowel syndrome.  From: Carling, L. A. S. S. E., Svedberg, L. E., & Hulten, S. (1989). Short-term treatment of the irritable bowel syndrome: a placebo-controlled trial of peppermint oil against hyoscyaminme. Opusc Med, 34, 55-57.

• Artemisia ludoviciana, Cuphea aequipetala, Ludwigia repens, Mentha piperita, Persea americana, Annona cherimola, Guaiacum coulteri, and Moussonia deppeana showed the highest inhibitory effect against helicobacter pylori, a bacteria that causes gastrointestinal disorders.  From:  Castillo-Juárez, I., González, V., Jaime-Aguilar, H., Martínez, G., Linares, E., Bye, R., & Romero, I. (2009). Anti-Helicobacter pylori activity of plants used in Mexican traditional medicine for gastrointestinal disorders. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 122(2), 402-405.

• In a review of multiple studies, peppermint was more effective than placebo in treating irritable bowel syndrome. From:  Ford, A. C., Talley, N. J., Spiegel, B. M., Foxx-Orenstein, A. E., Schiller, L., Quigley, E. M., & Moayyedi, P. (2008). Effect of fibre, antispasmodics, and peppermint oil in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome: systematic review and meta-analysis. Bmj, 337, a2313.

• Ginger, peppermint, aniseed and fennel, citrus fruits, dandelion and artichoke, melissa and chamomile have digestive enhancing activities.  From:  Valussi, M. (2012). Functional foods with digestion-enhancing properties. International journal of food sciences and nutrition, 63(sup1), 82-89.

• Peppermint and caraway oil relaxed the gall-bladder and slowed small intestinal transit.  From:  Goerg, K. J., & Spilker, T. H. (2003). Effect of peppermint oil and caraway oil on gastrointestinal motility in healthy volunteers: a pharmacodynamic study using simultaneous determination of gastric and gall‐bladder emptying and orocaecal transit time. Alimentary pharmacology & therapeutics, 17(3), 445-451.

• In a single blind, randomized, controlled trial, 26 patients who performed controlled breathing with peppermint aroma showed reduced postoperative nausea compared to 16 patients who just performed controlled breathing. From: Sites, D. S., Johnson, N. T., Miller, J. A., Torbush, P. H., Hardin, J. S., Knowles, S. S., … & Tart, R. C. (2014). Controlled breathing with or without peppermint aromatherapy for postoperative nausea and/or vomiting symptom relief: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of PeriAnesthesia Nursing, 29(1), 12-19.

• In nine studies, peppermint oil improved gastrointestinal health.  From:  Grigoleit, H. G., & Grigoleit, P. (2005). Gastrointestinal clinical pharmacology of peppermint oil. Phytomedicine, 12(8), 607-611.

• Peppermint oil enhanced gastric emptying. ​From: Inamori, M., Akiyama, T., Akimoto, K., Fujita, K., Takahashi, H., Yoneda, M., … & Nakajima, A. (2007). Early effects of peppermint oil on gastric emptying: a crossover study using a continuous real-time 13C breath test (BreathID system). Journal of gastroenterology, 42(7), 539-542.

• In a randomized study with 121 patients having postoperative nausea, a blend of lavender, ginger, peppermint, and spearmint in a portable inhaler was effective and well received by patients. From: Hodge, N. S., McCarthy, M. S., & Pierce, R. M. (2014). A prospective randomized study of the effectiveness of aromatherapy for relief of postoperative nausea and vomiting. Journal of PeriAnesthesia Nursing, 29(1), 5-11.

• Patients treated orally with a peppermint / caraway oil showed good tolerability and reduced symptoms associated with functional dyspepsia.  From:  May, B., Köhler, S., & Schneider, B. (2000). Efficacy and tolerability of a fixed combination of peppermint oil and caraway oil in patients suffering from functional dyspepsia. Alimentary pharmacology & therapeutics, 14(12), 1671-1677.

• In this mega analysis on herbal remedies for IBS, peppermint was identified as effective from multiple studies.  From:  Rahimi, R., & Abdollahi, M. (2012). Herbal medicines for the management of irritable bowel syndrome: a comprehensive review. World J Gastroenterol, 18(7), 589-600.

• Peppermint essential oil capsules reduced colonic spasms during a colonscopy.  From:  Shavakhi, A., Ardestani, S. K., Taki, M., Goli, M., & Keshteli, A. H. (2012). Premedication with peppermint oil capsules in colonoscopy: a double blind placebo-controlled randomized trial study. Acta gastro-enterologica Belgica, 75(3), 349-353.

• Peppermint increased bile flow in rats.  From:  Trabace, L., Avato, P., Mazzoccoli, M., & Siro‐Brigiani, G. (1994). Cholertic activity of Thapsia chem I, II, and III in rats: Comparison with terpenoid constituents and peppermint oil. Phytotherapy Research, 8(5), 305-307.

• An essential oil blend including rosemary, lemon, and peppermint rubbed on the abdominal area reduced constipation in the elderly.  From:  Kim, M. A., Sakong, J. K., Kim, E. J., & Kim, E. H. (2005). Effect of aromatherapy massage for the relief of constipation in the elderly. Taehan Kanho Hakhoe Chi, 35(1), 56-64.
• Reasons for peppermint oils spasmolytic effect on the gastrointestinal tract are discussed. From:  Grigoleit, H. G., & Grigoleit, P. (2005). Pharmacology and preclinical pharmacokinetics of peppermint oil. Phytomedicine, 12(8), 612-616.

• In a study of 50 patients with acute leukemia, administration of aromatherapy of choice: lavender, peppermint, or chamomile, significantly improved perceived tiredness, lack of appetite, depression, and anxiety, compared to the placebo. From: Lisa Blackburn, M. S., Sara Achor, B. S. N., AD, B. A., Nicole Bauchmire, M. S., Danielle Dunnington, A. D., Klisovic, R. B., … & Tomlinson-Pinkham, K. (2017, July). The effect of aromatherapy on insomnia and other common symptoms among patients with acute leukemia. In Oncology nursing forum (Vol. 44, No. 4, p. E185). Oncology Nursing Society.

ANTINOCISEPTIVE / ANALGESIC

• In a review of research, menthol was shown to impart a topical cooling effect, desensitizing nociceptors, to offer analgesic activity. From: Pergolizzi Jr, J. V., Taylor Jr, R., LeQuang, J. A., Raffa, R. B., & NEMA Research Group. (2018). The role and mechanism of action of menthol in topical analgesic products. Journal of clinical pharmacy and therapeutics, 43(3), 313-319.

• In a randomized small controlled study with nurses after two consecutive days of working, both a foot bath or a topical spray with peppermint and orange essential oils helped reduce lower extremity edema, pain, and fatigue.  From: Han, A., Kim, J., & Hur, M. H. (2022). Effects of Foot Bath and Spray Application of Peppermint and Grapefruit Essential Oils on Lower Extremity Edema, Pain, and Fatigue. Journal of the Korea Convergence Society, 13(1), 375-386.

• In 22 patients with chemotherapy induced peripheral neuropathy, application of 1% menthol twice a day for 6 weeks. Side effects were minimal and most of the patients experienced improved function and reduced pain. From: Storey, D. J., Colvin, L. A., Scott, A. C., Boyle, D., Green, L., Jones, A. P., & Fallon, M. T. (2010). Treatment of chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy (CIPN) with topical menthol: A phase I study. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 28(15_suppl), 9129-9129.  Read more:  Link

• In 16 subjects, a 3.5% topical menthol was more effective than ice in reducing exercise related muscle soreness and the menthol treatement also showed improved muscle force. From: Johar, P., Grover, V., Topp, R., & Behm, D. G. (2012). A comparison of topical menthol to ice on pain, evoked tetanic and voluntary force during delayed onset muscle soreness. International journal of sports physical therapy, 7(3), 314.

• Menthol applied over a 1-week period showed analgesic activity in 10 participants. From: Mahn, F., Hüllemann, P., Wasner, G., Baron, R., & Binder, A. (2014). Topical high‐concentration menthol: reproducibility of a human surrogate pain model. European Journal of Pain, 18(9), 1248-1258.

• In a study of 60 participants with neck pain, a blend of black pepper, lavender, peppermint, and marjoram essential oil in an 3% dilution applied topically helped reduce pain and improve range of motion compared to the placebo.  From:  Ou, M. C., Lee, Y. F., Li, C. C., & Wu, S. K. (2014). The effectiveness of essential oils for patients with neck pain: A randomized controlled study. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 20(10), 771-779.

• Mentha piperita, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Apium graveolens, Eucalyptus camaldulentis, and Ruta graveolens possessed an anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects in rodents.   From:  Atta, A. H., & Alkofahi, A. (1998). Anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of some Jordanian medicinal plant extracts. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 60(2), 117-124.
• Menthol showed potential as a topical analgesic.  From:  Green, B. G., & McAuliffe, B. L. (2000). Menthol desensitization of capsaicin irritation: evidence of a short-term anti-nociceptive effect. Physiology & Behavior, 68(5), 631-639.

• There were antinociceptive and local anaesthetic effects of thymol and menthol in rats.  From:  Haeseler, G., Maue, D., Grosskreutz, J., Bufler, J., Nentwig, B., Piepenbrock, S., … & Leuwer, M. (2002). Voltage-dependent block of neuronal and skeletal muscle sodium channels by thymol and menthol. European journal of anaesthesiology, 19(08), 571-579.

• Menthol improved the analgesic efficacy of tetracaine gel, likely in related to enhanced percutaneous permeation.  From:  Liu, Y., Ye, X., Feng, X., Zhou, G., Rong, Z., Fang, C., & Chen, H. (2005). Menthol facilitates the skin analgesic effect of tetracaine gel. International journal of pharmaceutics, 305(1), 31-36.

• Acupressure using lavender, rosemary, and peppermint was more effective than just acupressure alone in relieving shoulder pain in stroke patients.  From:  Shin, B. C., & Lee, M. S. (2007). Effects of aromatherapy acupressure on hemiplegic shoulder pain and motor power in stroke patients: a pilot study. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 13(2), 247-252.
• Topical application of menthol on humans affects nociceptors to reduce pain.  From:  Wasner, G., Schattschneider, J., Binder, A., & Baron, R. (2004). Topical menthol—a human model for cold pain by activation and sensitization of C nociceptors. Brain, 127(5), 1159-1171.  Read more:  Link
• Peppermint and eucalyptus oil improved cognitive ability and was mentally relaxing.  Peppermint also reduced headache.  From:  Göbel, H., Schmidt, G., & Soyka, D. (1994). Effect of peppermint and eucalyptus oil preparations on neurophysiological and experimental algesimetric headache parameters. Cephalalgia, 14(3), 228-234.
• A menthol solution applied to the forehead and temporal area reduced the migraine headache pain. From:  Borhani Haghighi, A., Motazedian, S., Rezaii, R., Mohammadi, F., Salarian, L., Pourmokhtari, M., … & Miri, R. (2010). Cutaneous application of menthol 10% solution as an abortive treatment of migraine without aura: a randomised, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled, crossed‐over study. International journal of clinical practice, 64(4), 451-456.
• Topical application of peppermint essential oil reduced neuralgic pain.  From:  Davies, S. J., Harding, L. M., & Baranowski, A. P. (2002). A novel treatment of postherpetic neuralgia using peppermint oil. The Clinical journal of pain, 18(3), 200-202.
• A 10% peppermint oil in ethanol solution efficiently alleviates tension-type headaches.  From:  Göbel, H., Fresenius, J., Heinze, A., Dworschak, M., & Soyka, D. (1996). [Effectiveness of Oleum menthae piperitae and paracetamol in therapy of headache of the tension type]. Der Nervenarzt, 67(8), 672-681.

• In ten healthy men, menthol was applied in varying concentrations to the left thigh (0.5, 4.6, and 10 percent). The 4.6% concentration showed the strongest amount of cooling. From: Lasanen, R., Julkunen, P., Airaksinen, O., & Töyräs, J. (2016). Menthol concentration in topical cold gel does not have significant effect on skin cooling. Skin Research and Technology, 22(1), 40-45.

HEADACHE

• Peppermint and eucalyptus oil improved cognitive ability and was mentally relaxing.  Peppermint also reduced headache.  From:  Göbel, H., Schmidt, G., & Soyka, D. (1994). Effect of peppermint and eucalyptus oil preparations on neurophysiological and experimental algesimetric headache parameters. Cephalalgia, 14(3), 228-234.
• A menthol solution applied to the forehead and temporal area reduced the migraine headache pain. From:  Borhani Haghighi, A., Motazedian, S., Rezaii, R., Mohammadi, F., Salarian, L., Pourmokhtari, M., … & Miri, R. (2010). Cutaneous application of menthol 10% solution as an abortive treatment of migraine without aura: a randomised, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled, crossed‐over study. International journal of clinical practice, 64(4), 451-456.
• A 10% peppermint oil in ethanol solution efficiently alleviates tension-type headaches.  From:  Göbel, H., Fresenius, J., Heinze, A., Dworschak, M., & Soyka, D. (1996). [Effectiveness of Oleum menthae piperitae and paracetamol in therapy of headache of the tension type]. Der Nervenarzt, 67(8), 672-681.

ANTISPASMOTIC

• In a meta-review of 12 randomized controlled trials and 591 patients,  peppermint essential oil showed spasmolytic activity related to IBS.  From:  Ford, A. C., Talley, N. J., Spiegel, B. M., Foxx-Orenstein, A. E., Schiller, L., Quigley, E. M., & Moayyedi, P. (2008). Effect of fibre, antispasmodics, and peppermint oil in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome: systematic review and meta-analysis. Bmj, 337, a2313.

• A barium solution mixed with peppermint essential oil was safe and effective for eliminating colonic spasm during an enema procedure.  From:  Asao, T., Kuwano, H., Ide, M., Hirayama, I., Nakamura, J. I., Fujita, K. I., & Horiuti, R. (2003). Spasmolytic effect of peppermint oil in barium during double-contrast barium enema compared with Buscopan. Clinical radiology, 58(4), 301-305.

• Peppermint essential oil inhibiting the gastric peristalsis in Japanese individuals undergoing upper gastrointestinal endoscopy.  From:  Hiki, N. (2010). [Peppermint oil reduces gastric motility during the upper gastrointestinal endoscopy]. Nihon rinsho. Japanese journal of clinical medicine, 68(11), 2126-2134.

• Peppermint essential oil relaxed digestive smooth muscle. ​From: Hills, J. M., & Aaronson, P. I. (1991). The mechanism of action of peppermint oil on gastrointestinal smooth muscle: an analysis using patch clamp electrophysiology and isolated tissue pharmacology in rabbit and guinea pig. Gastroenterology, 101(1), 55-65.
• Peppermint essential oil capsules reduced colonic spasms during a colonscopy.  From:  Shavakhi, A., Ardestani, S. K., Taki, M., Goli, M., & Keshteli, A. H. (2012). Premedication with peppermint oil capsules in colonoscopy: a double blind placebo-controlled randomized trial study. Acta gastro-enterologica Belgica, 75(3), 349-353.
• Peppermint essential oil was useful as an antispasmodic during esophagogastroduodenoscops.  From:  Imagawa, A., Hata, H., Nakatsu, M., Yoshida, Y., Takeuchi, K., Inokuchi, T., … & Miyatake, H. (2012). Peppermint oil solution is useful as an antispasmodic drug for esophagogastroduodenoscopy, especially for elderly patients. Digestive diseases and sciences, 57(9), 2379-2384.

• Oral intake of peppermint essential oil was antispasmodic on the digestive tract.  From:  Mizuno, S., Kato, K., Ono, Y., Yano, K., Kurosaka, H., Takahashi, A., … & Hiki, N. (2006). Oral peppermint oil is a useful antispasmodic for double‐contrast barium meal examination. Journal of gastroenterology and hepatology, 21(8), 1297-1301.
• Peppermint was spasmolytic during endoscopic cholangiopancreatography.  From:  Solà-Bonada, N., de Andrés-Lázaro, A. M., Roca-Massa, M., Bordas-Alsina, J. M., Codina-Jané, C., & Ribas-Sala, J. (2011). [1.6% peppermint oil solution as intestinal spasmolytic in retrograde endoscopic cholangiopancreatography]. Farmacia hospitalaria: organo oficial de expresion cientifica de la Sociedad Espanola de Farmacia Hospitalaria, 36(4), 256-260.
• Peppermint essential oil exhibited antispasmodic activity on the rat trachea.   From:  de Sousa, A. A. S., Soares, P. M. G., de Almeida, A. N. S., Maia, A. R., de Souza, E. P., & Assreuy, A. M. S. (2010). Antispasmodic effect of Mentha piperita essential oil on tracheal smooth muscle of rats. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 130(2), 433-436.
• Spasmolytic activity of peppermint, sage, and rosemary were assessed.  From:  Taddei, I., Giachetti, D., Taddei, E., Mantovani, P., & Bianchi, E. (1988). Spasmolytic activity of peppermint, sage and rosemary essences and their major constituents. Fitoterapia, 59, 463-468.
• Reasons for peppermint oils spasmolytic effect on the gastrointestinal tract are discussed. From:  Grigoleit, H. G., & Grigoleit, P. (2005). Pharmacology and preclinical pharmacokinetics of peppermint oil. Phytomedicine, 12(8), 612-616.

ANTI-ITCHING

• Applications of menthol and cooling reduced skin itching.  From:  Bromma, B., Scharein, E., Darsow, U., & Ring, J. (1995). Effects of menthol and cold on histamine-induced itch and skin reactions in man. Neuroscience letters, 187(3), 157-160.  
• A blend of guar gum hydrogel with peppermint essential oil reduced itching in patients with burn scars in this multicenter controlled study of 74 patients that had severe burns.  From:  Wu, J., Xu, R., Zhan, R., Luo, G., Niu, X., Liu, Y., … & Lau, J. Y. N. (2016). Effective symptomatic treatment for severe and intractable pruritus associated with severe burn-induced hypertrophic scars: A prospective, multicenter, controlled trial. Burns, 42(5), 1059-1066.

• A triple-blind clinical trial of 96 randomly selected pregnant women with itching, showed peppermint essential oil 0.5% in sesame oil reduced itching.   From:  Amjadi, M. A., Mojab, F., & Kamranpour, S. B. (2012). The effect of peppermint oil on symptomatic treatment of pruritus in pregnant women. Iranian journal of pharmaceutical research: IJPR, 11(4), 1073.
• Fifty patients suffering from chronic itching showed reduced symptoms with the topical application of 5% dilution peppermint essential oil.  From:  Elsaie, L. T., El Mohsen, A. M., Ibrahim, I. M., Mohey-Eddin, M. H., & Elsaie, M. L. (2016). Effectiveness of topical peppermint oil on symptomatic treatment of chronic pruritus. Clinical, cosmetic and investigational dermatology, 9, 333.

IMPROVED COGNITION

• Peppermint and eucalyptus oil improved cognitive ability and was mentally relaxing.  Peppermint essential oil also reduced headache.  From:  Göbel, H., Schmidt, G., & Soyka, D. (1994). Effect of peppermint and eucalyptus oil preparations on neurophysiological and experimental algesimetric headache parameters. Cephalalgia, 14(3), 228-234.

• Peppermint odor improved task performance in clerical work.  From:  Barker, S., Grayhem, P., Koon, J., Perkins, J., Whalen, A., & Raudenbush, B. (2003). Improved performance on clerical tasks associated with administration of peppermint odor. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 97(3), 1007-1010

• Peppermint essential oil enhanced memory whereas ylang-ylang impaired it, and peppermint increased alertness while ylang-ylang decreased it, but significantly increased calmness. From:  Moss, M., Hewitt, S., Moss, L., & Wesnes, K. (2008). Modulation of cognitive performance and mood by aromas of peppermint and ylang-ylang. International Journal of Neuroscience, 118(1), 59-77.

• In a study of 24 young adults who ingested peppermint essential oil capsules, results showed improved cognitive performance.  From:  Kennedy, D., Okello, E., Chazot, P., Howes, M. J., Ohiomokhare, S., Jackson, P., … & Wightman, E. (2018). Volatile Terpenes and Brain Function: Investigation of the Cognitive and Mood Effects of Mentha× Piperita L. Essential Oil with In Vitro Properties Relevant to Central Nervous System Function. Nutrients, 10(8), 1029.
• Inhaling peppermint, basil, and helichrysum reduced the level of mental fatigue.  From:  Varney, E., & Buckle, J. (2013). Effect of inhaled essential oils on mental exhaustion and moderate burnout: a small pilot study. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 19(1), 69-71.

NEUROPROTECTIVE

• Mint demonstrated an antioxidant capability towards neural cells.  From:  López, V., Martín, S., Gómez‐Serranillos, M. P., Carretero, M. E., Jäger, A. K., & Calvo, M. I. (2010). Neuroprotective and neurochemical properties of mint extracts. Phytotherapy Research, 24(6), 869-874.

STIMULANT

• Inhalation of lavender and hyssop oil decreased mobility in mice that were treated with caffeine. Inhalation of ginger, thyme, peppermint, and cypress oil increased mobility.  From:  Lim, W. C., Seo, J. M., Lee, C. I., Pyo, H. B., & Lee, B. C. (2005). Stimulative and sedative effects of essential oils upon inhalation in mice. Archives of pharmacal research, 28(7), 770-774.

IMPROVED MOOD / ANXIETY

• Aromatherapy of lavender, peppermint, rosemary, and clary sage reduced stress in nursing students.  From:  Park, M. K., & Lee, E. S. (2004). [The effect of aroma inhalation method on stress responses of nursing students]. Taehan Kanho Hakhoe Chi, 34(2), 344-351.

• In a study of 50 patients with acute leukemia, administration of aromatherapy of choice: lavender, peppermint, or chamomile, significantly improved perceived tiredness, lack of appetite, depression, and anxiety, compared to the placebo. From: Lisa Blackburn, M. S., Sara Achor, B. S. N., AD, B. A., Nicole Bauchmire, M. S., Danielle Dunnington, A. D., Klisovic, R. B., … & Tomlinson-Pinkham, K. (2017, July). The effect of aromatherapy on insomnia and other common symptoms among patients with acute leukemia. In Oncology nursing forum (Vol. 44, No. 4, p. E185). Oncology Nursing Society.

IMPROVED RESPIRATION / COUGH / CONGESTION

• Camphor, eucalyptus and menthol stimulate cold receptors in the nose to improve airflow.  From:  Burrow, A., Eccles, R., & Jones, A. S. (1983). The effects of camphor, eucalyptus and menthol vapour on nasal resistance to airflow and nasal sensation. Acta oto-laryngologica, 96(1-2), 157-161.

• In participants with the common cold who inhaled a mixture of aromatic vapors of eucalyptus, menthol, camphor, breathing was improved.  From:  Cohen, B. M., & Dressier, W. E. (1982). Acute aromatics inhalation modifies the airways. Effects of the common cold. Respiration, 43(4), 285-293.

• Peppermint essential oil exhibited antispasmodic activity on the rat trachea.   From:  de Sousa, A. A. S., Soares, P. M. G., de Almeida, A. N. S., Maia, A. R., de Souza, E. P., & Assreuy, A. M. S. (2010). Antispasmodic effect of Mentha piperita essential oil on tracheal smooth muscle of rats. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 130(2), 433-436.

• In a placebo-controlled study with 20 participants, menthol and eucalyptus oil inhalation reduced the coughing reaction. From: Morice, A. H., Marshall, A. E., Higgins, K. S., & Grattan, T. J. (1994). Effect of inhaled menthol on citric acid induced cough in normal subjects. Thorax, 49(10), 1024-1026.

• A peppermint lozenge improved airflow in those suffering from the common cold.  From:  ECCLES, R., JAWAD, M. S., & MORRIS, S. (1990). The effects of oral administration of (—)‐menthol on nasal resistance to airflow and nasal sensation of airflow in subjects suffering from nasal congestion associated with the common cold. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, 42(9), 652-654.

• Inhalation of a blend of aloe, coconut, orange, peppermint and vitamin E. reduced inflammation associated with oxidant stress-related challenge to the nasal mucosa.  From:  Gao, M., Singh, A., Macri, K., Reynolds, C., Singhal, V., Biswal, S., & Spannhake, E. W. (2011). Antioxidant components of naturally-occurring oils exhibit marked anti-inflammatory activity in epithelial cells of the human upper respiratory system. Respiratory research, 12(1), 1.

• A constituent isolated from peppermint essential oil helped alleviate the nasal symptoms of allergic rhinitis.  From:  Inoue, T., Sugimoto, Y., Masuda, H., & Kamei, C. (2002). Antiallergic effect of flavonoid glycosides obtained from Mentha piperita L. Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 25(2), 256-259.

• Menthol inhalation affects the cool receptors and a person’s perception of improved breathing.  From:  Lindemann, J., Tsakiropoulou, E., Scheithauer, M. O., Konstantinidis, I., & Wiesmiller, K. M. (2008). Impact of menthol inhalation on nasal mucosal temperature and nasal patency. American journal of rhinology, 22(4), 402-405.

• This article summarized the use of Eucalyptus citriodora, Eucalyptus globulus, Mentha piperita, Origanum syriacum, Salvia fruticosa and Rosmarinus officinalis in treating respiratory ailments.  From:  Rakover, Y., Ben-Arye, E., & Goldstein, L. H. (2008). The treatment of respiratory ailments with essential oils of some aromatic medicinal plants. Harefuah, 147(10), 783-8.

• Stimulation by menthol of the major palatine nerve and its sensory nerve endings in the nasal mucosa increased  nasal opening.  From:  Naito, K., Komori, M., Kondo, Y., Takeuchi, M., & Iwata, S. (1997). The effect of L-menthol stimulation of the major palatine nerve on subjective and objective nasal patency. Auris Nasus Larynx, 24(2), 159-162.

• Cold receptor stimulation of the upper airway during nasal inhalation of menthol reduced the sensation of respiratory discomfort associated with difficult breathing.  From:  Nishino, T., Tagaito, Y., & Sakurai, Y. (1997). Nasal inhalation of l-menthol reduces respiratory discomfort associated with loaded breathing. American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine, 156(1), 309-313.
• Peppermint essential oil inhalation may be an effective complementary treatment for pulmonary tuberculosis.  From:  Shkurupiĭ, V. A., Kazarinova, N. V., Ogirenko, A. P., Nikonov, S. D., Tkachev, A. V., & Tkachenko, K. G. (2001). [Efficiency of the use of peppermint (Mentha piperita L) essential oil inhalations in the combined multi-drug therapy for pulmonary tuberculosis]. Problemy tuberkuleza, (4), 36-39.

• Olbas oil, a blend of peppermint, eucalyptus, and cajuput oil, along with a small amount of juniper berry and wintergreen showed strong antimicrobial activity in vitro that may be effective against various skin or respiratory infections.  From:  Hamoud, R., Sporer, F., Reichling, J., & Wink, M. (2012). Antimicrobial activity of a traditionally used complex essential oil distillate (Olbas® Tropfen) in comparison to its individual essential oil ingredients. Phytomedicine, 19(11), 969-976.

SKIN HEALING / WOUND HEALING

• Peppermint gel in breastfeeding women resulted in less nipple cracks and was more effective than lanolin. From:  Melli, M. S., Rashidi, M. R., Nokhoodchi, A., Tagavi, S., Farzadi, L., Sadaghat, K., … & Sheshvan, M. K. (2007). A randomized trial of peppermint gel, lanolin ointment, and placebo gel to prevent nipple crack in primiparous breastfeeding women. Medical Science Monitor, 13(9), CR406-CR411.
• Peppermint water was effective in the prevention of nipple pain and damage from breast feeding. From:  Melli, M. S., Rashidi, M. R., Delazar, A., Madarek, E., Maher, M. H. K., Ghasemzadeh, A., … & Tahmasebi, Z. (2007). Effect of peppermint water on prevention of nipple cracks in lactating primiparous women: a randomized controlled trial. International breastfeeding journal, 2(1), 1.
• The high fungistatic effects of clove and peppermint essential oils may be useful for treating skin fungi.  From:  El-Naghy, M. A., Maghazy, S. N., Fadl-Allah, E. M., & El-Gendy, Z. K. (1992). Fungistatic action of natural oils and fatty acids on dermatophytic and saprophytic fungi. Zentralblatt für Mikrobiologie, 147(3), 214-220.

• Olbas oil, a blend of peppermint, eucalyptus, and cajuput oil, along with a small amount of juniper berry and wintergreen showed strong antimicrobial activity in vitro that may be effective against various skin or respiratory infections.  From:  Hamoud, R., Sporer, F., Reichling, J., & Wink, M. (2012). Antimicrobial activity of a traditionally used complex essential oil distillate (Olbas® Tropfen) in comparison to its individual essential oil ingredients. Phytomedicine, 19(11), 969-976.

​HAIR GROWTH

• A diluted peppermint oil applied topically over four weeks induced hair growth in mice without adverse effects.  From: Oh, J. Y., Park, M. A., & Kim, Y. C. (2014). Peppermint oil promotes hair growth without toxic signs. Toxicological research, 30(4), 297-304.

DANDRUFF

• An herbal shampoo blend of alcohol extracts from Punica granatum, Rosmarinus officinalis, Matricaria chamomilla, Urtica dioica, Mentha piperita, and Salvia officinalis with Pirocton Olamine and Zinc-PCA were tested on 30 dandruff patients for two months. Significant reduction in dandruff resulted.  From:  Sahraie-Rad, M., Izadyari, A., Rakizadeh, S., & Sharifi-Rad, J. (2015). Preparation of strong antidandruff shampoo using medicinal plant extracts: a clinical trial and chronic dandruff treatment. Jundishapur Journal of Natural Pharmaceutical Products, 10(4), e21517.

ATHLETE’S FOOT

• Camphor, menthol, thymol and oil of Eucalyptus citriodora were the most efficacious components against the test toe fungus organisms.  From:  Ramsewak, R. S., Nair, M. G., Stommel, M., & Selanders, L. (2003). In vitro antagonistic activity of monoterpenes and their mixtures against toenail fungus pathogens. Phytotherapy Research, 17(4), 376-379.
• The high fungistatic effects of clove and peppermint essential oils may be useful for treating skin fungi.  From:  El-Naghy, M. A., Maghazy, S. N., Fadl-Allah, E. M., & El-Gendy, Z. K. (1992). Fungistatic action of natural oils and fatty acids on dermatophytic and saprophytic fungi. Zentralblatt für Mikrobiologie, 147(3), 214-220.

ANTI-INFLAMMATORY

• In 19 healthy participants, ice and/or diluted menthol were applied, and blood flow was measured. It was found that applying a 3.5% menthol helped reduce peripheral blood flow, and the combination of applying both crushed ice and menthol had an additive effect of reducing blood flow. From: Topp, R., Ledford, E. R., & Jacks, D. E. (2013). Topical menthol, ice, peripheral blood flow, and perceived discomfort. Journal of athletic training, 48(2), 220-225.

• In a randomized small controlled study with nurses after two consecutive days of working, both a foot bath or a topical spray with peppermint and orange essential oils helped reduce lower extremity edema, pain, and fatigue.  From: Han, A., Kim, J., & Hur, M. H. (2022). Effects of Foot Bath and Spray Application of Peppermint and Grapefruit Essential Oils on Lower Extremity Edema, Pain, and Fatigue. Journal of the Korea Convergence Society, 13(1), 375-386.
• In 16 subjects, topical application to the thigh of a 3.5% and an 10% menthol rapidly reduced blood flow. This may aid to attenuate the inflammation process. From: Topp, R., Winchester, L. J., Schilero, J., & Jacks, D. (2011). Effect of topical menthol on ipsilateral and contralateral superficial blood flow following a bout of maximum voluntary muscle contraction. International journal of sports physical therapy, 6(2), 83.

• In 17 healthy adults, 3.5% menthol was more effective than ice in rapidly reducing blood flow and improving lower arm muscle strength. From: Topp, R., Winchester, L., Mink, A. M., Kaufman, J. S., & Jacks, D. E. (2011). Comparison of the effects of ice and 3.5% menthol gel on blood flow and muscle strength of the lower arm. Journal of sport rehabilitation, 20(3), 355-366.

• Mentha piperita, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Apium graveolens, Eucalyptus camaldulentis, and Ruta graveolens possessed an anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects in rodents.   From:  Atta, A. H., & Alkofahi, A. (1998). Anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of some Jordanian medicinal plant extracts. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 60(2), 117-124.

TRANSDERMAL DELIVERY

• L-menthol was an effective enhancer for a transdermal therapeutic system. From:  Olivella, M. S., Lhez, L., Pappano, N. B., & Debattista, N. B. (2007). Effects of dimethylformamide and L-menthol permeation enhancers on transdermal delivery of quercetin. Pharmaceutical development and technology, 12(5), 481-484.

ANTIDIABETIC

• Extracts from Murraya koenigii (curry tree), Mentha piperitae (peppermint), Ocimum sanctum (basil), and Aegle marmelos (woodapple) resulted in a significant decrease in the levels of blood glucose, glycosylated haemoglobin and urea, in diabetic rats.  From:  Narendhirakannan, R. T., Subramanian, S., & Kandaswamy, M. (2006). Biochemical evaluation of antidiabetogenic properties of some commonly used Indian plants on streptozotocin‐induced diabetes in experimental rats. Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology, 33(12), 1150-1157.
• Tea preparations from the following plants showed in vitro antidiabetic, antioxidant activities: green tea, peppermint, black, thyme, olive leaf, sage, absinthium, blackberry, and roselle.  From:  Büyükbalci, A., & El, S. N. (2008). Determination of in vitro antidiabetic effects, antioxidant activities and phenol contents of some herbal teas. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, 63(1), 27-33.

FEMALE HEALTH

• In a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study of 50 highschool girls with PMS, the group who took a peppermint essential oil capsule twice a day for 10 days had safe and effective results. From: Delavar, M. A., Ebrahimi, S., Esmaeilzadeh, S., & Khamse, A. (2019). Effect of Peppermint Oil on Premenstrual Syndrome: A Randomized, Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Study. Iranian Red Crescent Medical Journal, (In Press).

• Peppermint gel in breastfeeding women resulted in less nipple cracks and was more effective than lanolin. From:  Melli, M. S., Rashidi, M. R., Nokhoodchi, A., Tagavi, S., Farzadi, L., Sadaghat, K., … & Sheshvan, M. K. (2007). A randomized trial of peppermint gel, lanolin ointment, and placebo gel to prevent nipple crack in primiparous breastfeeding women. Medical Science Monitor, 13(9), CR406-CR411.
• Peppermint water was effective in the prevention of nipple pain and damage from breast feeding. From:  Melli, M. S., Rashidi, M. R., Delazar, A., Madarek, E., Maher, M. H. K., Ghasemzadeh, A., … & Tahmasebi, Z. (2007). Effect of peppermint water on prevention of nipple cracks in lactating primiparous women: a randomized controlled trial. International breastfeeding journal, 2(1), 1.

• This articles reviews research on herbs for treating menstrual pain. Herbs included: ginger, German chamomile, mint, valerian, cramp bark, black haw, fennel, lemon balm, cumin, and cinnamon. From: Rajabzadeh, F., Fazljou, S. M., Khodaie, L., Abbasalizadeh, S., & Sahebi, L. (2018). Effects of hot temperament herbs on primary Dysmenorrhea: a systematic review. Middle East Journal of Family Medicine, 7(10), 257.

ANTI-CANCER

• The anticarcinogenic activity of Mentha leaf extracts were demonstrated in vitro.  From:  Jain, D., Pathak, N., Khan, S., Raghuram, G. V., Bhargava, A., Samarth, R., & Mishra, P. K. (2011). Evaluation of cytotoxicity and anticarcinogenic potential of Mentha leaf extracts. International journal of toxicology, 30(2), 225-236.

GREEN GARDENING

• Thirty essential oils were tested against pathogenic plant bacteria. Ceylon cinnamon (leaf and bark), oregano, clove bud, palmarosa, basil, peppermint, rosemary, blue gum, camphor, lemongrass, aniseed, ylang ylang, silver fir, lemon, dwarf mountain pine, bay laurel, scots pine, black cumin, Indian frankincense, bergamot orange, common juniper, bitter orange, and neem showed varying degrees of reaction.  From: Popović, T., Milićević, Z., Oro, V., Kostić, I., Radović, V., Jelušić, A., & Krnjajić, S. (2018). A preliminary study of antibacterial activity of thirty essential oils against several important plant pathogenic bacteria. Pesticidi i fitomedicina, 33(3-4), 185-195.

FEVER

• Marshmallow, beet, chicory, watermelon, coriander, licorice, fummitory, henna, chamomile, peppermint, water lily, great plantain, purslain, pomogranate, willow, violet, and jujube have been used in Persian medicine to help reduce fever in children. From: Hadian, F., Varshochi, M., Zargaran, A., Besharat, M., & Mousavi Bazaz, M. (2019). Medicinal Herbs Useful in Pediatric Fever from the Perspective of Persian Medicine. International Journal of Pediatrics, 7(9), 10087-10098.

By: Kathy Sadowksi

Updated: 12/21/2022