Pine (Pinus sylvestris) Research

Latin Name: Pinus sylvestris

Family: Pinaceae

Pine extracts have been used for centuries to treat a wide variety of respiratory complaints including viral infections, cough, congestion, hoarseness, and fever.  It has also been used topically to reduce inflammation, wounds, and pain.

RESEARCH

The listings of research below represent a compilation of scientific articles found on the species, with a very brief overview description of each article/study.  Research found is catalogued by therapeutic action.  This categorized compilation of research articles does not necessarily imply that there are adequate results to demonstrate safe and/or effective human use.

GENERAL

• Lis-Balchin, M. (2006). Aromatherapy Science: A guide for healthcare professionals. London: Pharmaceutical Press.
• Peace-Rhind, J.  (2012). Essential oils: A handbook for aromatherapy practice 2nd edition.  Singing Dragon.  London.
• Petersen, D. (2015). Aromatherapy materia medica.  Essential oil monographs.  American College of Healthcare Sciences.
• Tisserand, R. & Young, R. (2014).  Essential Oil Safety.  Second Edition.  Churchill, Livingstone, Elsevier.
• Medicinal uses of Pinus pinaster bark extracts were reviewed.  This species is similar to Pinus sylvestris.  From:  Iravani, S., & Zolfaghari, B. (2011). Pharmaceutical and nutraceutical effects of Pinus pinaster bark extract. Research in pharmaceutical sciences, 6(1), 1.
• There are many species of pine, with varying amounts of alpha pinene, beta-pinene, myrcene, carene, camphene, l-limonene, and phelandrene.  From:  Rhind, J.  (2018).  Pinus Species in Aromatherapy: A Review.  The International Journal of Professional Holistic Aromatherapy.  7(1) Summer 2018.
• In a review of research, pine bark in vivo and in vitro studies were promising against cancer, diabetes, hypertension, atherosclerosis, inflammatory and oxidative stress related diseases. It may also have a neuroprotective effect. Human studies are needed. From: Mármol, I., Quero, J., Jiménez-Moreno, N., Rodríguez-Yoldi, M. J., & Ancín-Azpilicueta, C. (2019). A systematic review of the potential uses of pine bark in food industry and health care. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 88, 558-566.

SAFETY

• Essential oil: Use with caution in those with asthma as it can make the mucus thicker (Peace-Rhind, 2012).

ANTIMICROBIAL / ANTIBACTERIAL / ANTIFUNGAL

• Pine essential oil was antibacterial against a variety of pathogens in vitro.  From: Oyewole, K. A., Oyedara, O. O., Awojide, S. H., Olawade, M. O., & Adetunji, C. O. (2021). Chemical constituents and antibacterial activity of essential oils of needles of Pinus sylvestris (Scots pine) from South West Nigeria.
• At a dilution of 2.5%, pine oil was effective against certain airborne fungi.  This can help improve indoor air quality. From:  Motiejūnaitė, O., & Dalia Pečiulytė, D. (2004). Fungicidal properties of Pinus sylvestris L. for improvement of air quality. Medicina (Kaunas), 8, 787-794.
• Phenolic constituents of the following plants showed in vitro antimicrobial activity: purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria), meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria.), willow herb (Epilobium angustifolium), cloudberry (Rubus chamaemorus), raspberry (Rubus idaeus), white birch (Betula pubescens), pine (Pinus sylvestris) and potato (Solanum tuberosum). From:  Rauha, J. P., Remes, S., Heinonen, M., Hopia, A., Kähkönen, M., Kujala, T., … & Vuorela, P. (2000). Antimicrobial effects of Finnish plant extracts containing flavonoids and other phenolic compounds. International journal of food microbiology, 56(1), 3-12.
• Inhibition of 45 oils on eight bacteria (four gram positive and four gram negative), two fungi, and one yeast were examined using disk assay.  Cinnamomum zeylanicum and Melaleuca alternifolia showed an inhibition against all test organisms and phage. Coriandrum sativum highly inhibited Gram positive bacteria and fungi. Cymbopogon flexuosus and Chamaemelum nobile oils highly inhibited both phage types. Angelica archangelica and Pinus sylvestris inhibited bacteria, but not any fungi. Oils with the highest antimicrobial abilities with the broadest range of inhibition were cinnamon bark (Cinnamomum zeylanicum), lemongrass (Cymbopogon flexuosus), savory (Satureja montana), Roman chamomile (C. nobile), rosewood (Aniba rosaeodora), spearmint (Mentha spicata) and tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia).  From:  Chao, S. C., Young, D. G., & Oberg, C. J. (2000). Screening for inhibitory activity of essential oils on selected bacteria, fungi and viruses. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 12(5), 639-649.
• Pinus peuce showed antimicrobial activity against multiple pathogens tested.  From:  Karapandzova, M., Stefkov, G., Trajkovska-Dokic, E., Kaftandzieva, A., & Kulevanova, S. (2011). Antimicrobial activity of needle essential oil of Pinus peuce Griseb.(Pinaceae) from Macedonian flora. Macedonian pharmaceutical bulletin, 57(1), 2.
• Pine needle essential oil showed antimicrobial activity against respiratory pathogens and was larvicidal against the fruit fly in vitro. From: Mitić, Z. S., Jovanović, B., Jovanović, S. Č., Mihajilov-Krstev, T., Stojanović-Radić, Z. Z., Cvetković, V. J., & Stojanović, G. S. (2018). Comparative study of the essential oils of four Pinus species: Chemical composition, antimicrobial and insect larvicidal activity. Industrial crops and products, 111, 55-62.
• A variety of Pinus species were tested for their antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. From: Kurti, F., Giorgi, A., Beretta, G., Mustafa, B., Gelmini, F., Testa, C., … & Hajdari, A. (2019). Chemical composition, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of essential oils of different Pinus species from Kosovo. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 31(4), 263-275.
• Thirty essential oils were tested against pathogenic plant bacteria. Ceylon cinnamon (leaf and bark), oregano, clove bud, palmarosa, basil, peppermint, rosemary, blue gum, camphor, lemongrass, aniseed, ylang ylang, silver fir, lemon, dwarf mountain pine, bay laurel, scots pine, black cumin, Indian frankincense, bergamot orange, common juniper, bitter orange, and neem showed varying degrees of reaction.  From: Popović, T., Milićević, Z., Oro, V., Kostić, I., Radović, V., Jelušić, A., & Krnjajić, S. (2018). A preliminary study of antibacterial activity of thirty essential oils against several important plant pathogenic bacteria. Pesticidi i fitomedicina, 33(3-4), 185-195.
• Alpha pinene showed antimicrobial, antifungal, antibacterial activity in vitro.  From:  Silva, A. C. R. D., Lopes, P. M., Azevedo, M. M. B. D., Costa, D. C. M., Alviano, C. S., & Alviano, D. S. (2012). Biological activities of a-pinene and β-pinene enantiomers. Molecules, 17(6), 6305-6316.

IMPROVED COGNITION

• Older adults showed improved cognition with a dietary supplement of Pinus radiata bark extract.  From:  Pipingas, A., Silberstein, R. B., Vitetta, L., Rooy, C. V., Harris, E. V., Young, J. M., … & Nastasi, J. (2008). Improved cognitive performance after dietary supplementation with a Pinus radiata bark extract formulation. Phytotherapy Research, 22(9), 1168-1174.

ANXIETY / STRESS

• Research on the stress reducing benefits of a forest bath, immersing oneself in the trees, is discussed.  From:  Tsunetsugu, Y., Park, B. J., & Miyazaki, Y. (2010). Trends in research related to “Shinrin-yoku”(taking in the forest atmosphere or forest bathing) in Japan. Environmental health and preventive medicine, 15(1), 27.
• In a study with 498 people, spending time in the forest improved emotions and reduced stress. From: Morita, E., Fukuda, S., Nagano, J., Hamajima, N., Yamamoto, H., Iwai, Y., … & Shirakawa, T. (2007). Psychological effects of forest environments on healthy adults: Shinrin-yoku (forest-air bathing, walking) as a possible method of stress reduction. Public health, 1.
• This paper reviewed research on 24 studies with 12 subjects each across Japan, totaling 280 people. Each subject walked in a forest one day, and walked in the city another day. Results showed that the forest walking resulted in lower concentrations of cortisol, pulse rate, blood pressure, and improved parasympathetic nerve activity, with lowered sympathetic nerve activity compared to the city environments. From: Park, B. J., Tsunetsugu, Y., Kasetani, T., Kagawa, T., & Miyazaki, Y. (2010). The physiological effects of Shinrin-yoku (taking in the forest atmosphere or forest bathing): evidence from field experiments in 24 forests across Japan. Environmental health and preventive medicine, 15(1), 18.

INSECTICIDAL

• The insecticidal activities of essential oil extracts against the mosquito: Culex pipiens molestus Forskål were determined. Extracts of Foeniculum vulgare (fennel) were the most toxic, followed by Ferula hermonis Boiss (in the carrot family), Citrus sinensis (orange), Pinus pinea (pine), Laurus nobilis (bay), and Eucalyptus spp.  Terpineol and 1,8-cineole components were the most effective in preventing Culex pipiens molestus bites.   From:  Traboulsi, A. F., El‐Haj, S., Tueni, M., Taoubi, K., Nader, N. A., & Mrad, A. (2005). Repellency and toxicity of aromatic plant extracts against the mosquito Culex pipiens molestus (Diptera: Culicidae). Pest management science, 61(6), 597-604.​
• Pinus sylvestris (pine) and Syzygium aromaticum (clove) showed larvicidal potential against Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus.  From:  Fayemiwo, K. A., Adeleke, M. A., Okoro, O. P., Awojide, S. H., & Awoniyi, I. O. (2014). Larvicidal efficacies and chemical composition of essential oils of Pinus sylvestris and Syzygium aromaticum against mosquitoes. Asian Pacific journal of tropical biomedicine, 4(1), 30-34.
• Pine needle essential oil showed antimicrobial activity against respiratory pathogens and was larvicidal against the fruit fly in vitro. From: Mitić, Z. S., Jovanović, B., Jovanović, S. Č., Mihajilov-Krstev, T., Stojanović-Radić, Z. Z., Cvetković, V. J., … & Stojanović, G. S. (2018). Comparative study of the essential oils of four Pinus species: Chemical composition, antimicrobial and insect larvicidal activity. Industrial crops and products, 111, 55-62.

ANTIOXIDANT

• Multiple Turkish species of pine demonstrated cholinesterase and antioxidant properties.  From:  Ustun, O., Senol, F. S., Kurkcuoglu, M., Orhan, I. E., Kartal, M., & Baser, K. H. C. (2012). Investigation on chemical composition, anticholinesterase and antioxidant activities of extracts and essential oils of Turkish Pinus species and pycnogenol. Industrial Crops and Products, 38, 115-123.
• Antioxidant activity of Pinus armandii was evaluated.  From:  Yang, X., Zhao, H. T., Wang, J., Meng, Q., Zhang, H., Yao, L., … & Xu, D. C. (2010). Chemical composition and antioxidant activity of essential oil of pine cones of Pinus armandii from the Southwest region of China. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research, 4(16), 1668-1672.
• A variety of Pinus species were tested for their antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. From: Kurti, F., Giorgi, A., Beretta, G., Mustafa, B., Gelmini, F., Testa, C., … & Hajdari, A. (2019). Chemical composition, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of essential oils of different Pinus species from Kosovo. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 31(4), 263-275.

ANTI-INFLAMMATORY

• Pinus sylvestrus bark extract inhibited the production of proinflammatory mediators.  From:  Karonen, M., Hämäläinen, M., Nieminen, R., Klika, K. D., Loponen, J., Ovcharenko, V. V., … & Pihlaja, K. (2004). Phenolic extractives from the bark of Pinus sylvestris L. and their effects on inflammatory mediators nitric oxide and prostaglandin E2. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 52(25), 7532-7540.
• Scots pine contains powerful anti-inflammatory compounds.  From:  Laavola, M., Nieminen, R., Leppänen, T., Eckerman, C., Holmbom, B., & Moilanen, E. (2015). Pinosylvin and monomethylpinosylvin, constituents of an extract from the knot of Pinus sylvestris, reduce inflammatory gene expression and inflammatory responses in vivo. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 63(13), 3445-3453.
• Anti-inflammatory activity was demonstrated in vivo by α-pinene and β-caryophyllene.  From:  Martin, S., Padilla, E., Ocete, M. A., Galvez, J., Jimenez, J., & Zarzuelo, A. (1993). Anti-inflammatory activity of the essential oil of Bupleurum fruticescens. Planta medica, 59(06), 533-536.

IMPROVED RESPIRATION

• Anti-inflammatory properties of Pinus sylvestris and Plantago lanceolata may be useful in treating certain respiratory diseases.  From:  Vigo, E., Cepeda, A., Gualillo, O., & Perez‐Fernandez, R. (2005). In‐vitro anti‐inflammatory activity of Pinus sylvestris and Plantago lanceolata extracts: effect on inducible NOS, COX‐1, COX‐2 and their products in J774A. 1 murine macrophages. Journal of pharmacy and pharmacology, 57(3), 383-391.
• In Turkey, people use pine for respiratory complaints.  From:  Kızılarslan, Ç., & Sevg, E. (2013). Ethnobotanical uses of genus Pinus L.(Pinaceae) in Turkey.
• Pine needle essential oil showed antimicrobial activity against respiratory pathogens and was larvicidal against the fruit fly in vitro. From: Mitić, Z. S., Jovanović, B., Jovanović, S. Č., Mihajilov-Krstev, T., Stojanović-Radić, Z. Z., Cvetković, V. J., … & Stojanović, G. S. (2018). Comparative study of the essential oils of four Pinus species: Chemical composition, antimicrobial and insect larvicidal activity. Industrial crops and products, 111, 55-62.
• In this placebo-controlled, double-blind, randomized trial 246 patients with chronic bronchitis, long use (one month) of myrtol (contains alpha pinene) over one month was tolerable and effective.   From:  Meister, R., Wittig, T., Beuscher, N., & de Mey, C. (1999). Efficacy and tolerability of Myrtol standardized in long-term treatment of chronic bronchitis. Arzneimittelforschung, 49(04), 351-358.
• In this 2 week treatment of 676 patients with chronic bronchitis, myrtol (contains alpha pinene, cineole, and d-limonene) was safe and effective.  From:  Matthys, H., de Mey, C., Carls, C., Ryś, A., Geib, A., & Wittig, T. (2000). Efficacy and tolerability of myrtol standardized in acute bronchitis. Arzneimittelforschung, 50(08), 700-711.

SKIN HEALING

• Absorption and binding to collagen was achieved by Pinus radiata bark extract.  From:  Ku, C. S., Sathishkumar, M., & Mun, S. P. (2007). Binding affinity of proanthocyanidin from waste Pinus radiata bark onto proline-rich bovine achilles tendon collagen type I. Chemosphere, 67(8), 1618-1627.
• Pinus pinea and Pinus halepensis demonstrated high wound healing activity.  From:  Süntar, I., Tumen, I., Ustün, O., Keleş, H., & Akkol, E. K. (2012). Appraisal on the wound healing and anti-inflammatory activities of the essential oils obtained from the cones and needles of Pinus species by in vivo and in vitro experimental models. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 139(2), 533-540.
• A Pinus species extract showed anti-photoaging activity in vitro.  From:  Jung, H. Y., Shin, J. C., Park, S. M., Kim, N. R., Kwak, W., & Choi, B. H. (2014). Pinus densiflora extract protects human skin fibroblasts against UVB-induced photoaging by inhibiting the expression of MMPs and increasing type I procollagen expression. Toxicology reports, 1, 658-666.
• In a double blind placebo controlled trial with 62 women ages 45 and older, they had improved skin elasticity and reduced roughness using a product containing Pinus pinaster bark, vitamins C and E, carotenoids, selenium, zinc, amino acids and glycosaminoglycans, and blueberry extract.  From:  Segger, D., & Schönlau, F. (2004). Supplementation with Evelle® improves skin smoothness and elasticity in a double‐blind, placebo‐controlled study with 62 women. Journal of dermatological treatment, 15(4), 222-226.

BONE DENSITY

• Essential oils of sage, rosemary, thyme, juniper, pine, turpentine, and eucalyptus and their constituents of thujone, eucalyptol, camphor, borneol, thymol, alpha-pinene, beta-pinene, bornylacetate, and menthol inhibited bone resorption.  From:  Mühlbauer, R. C., Lozano, A., Palacio, S., Reinli, A., & Felix, R. (2003). Common herbs, essential oils, and monoterpenes potently modulate bone metabolism. Bone, 32(4), 372-380.

SLEEP

• This article discusses the sleep improving benefits of α-pinene and 3-carene from pine trees.  From: Woo, J., & Lee, C. J. (2020). Sleep-enhancing effects of phytoncide via behavioral, electrophysiological, and molecular modeling approaches. Experimental Neurobiology, 29(2), 120.Alpha pinene, a major constituent of pine, improved non-REM sleep in vivo.  From:  Yang, H., Woo, J., Pae, A. N., Um, M. Y., Cho, N. C., Park, K. D., … & Cho, S. (2016). α-Pinene, a major constituent of pine tree oils, enhances non-rapid eye movement sleep in mice through GABAA-benzodiazepine receptors. Molecular pharmacology, mol-116.
• In a study with 10 men and 10 women, inhalation of alpha pinene and beta pinene affected EEG measured brain activity.  From: Kim, M., Sowndhararajan, K., Park, S. J., & Kim, S. (2018). Effect of inhalation of isomers,(+)-α-pinene and (+)-β-pinene on human electroencephalographic activity according to gender difference. European Journal of Integrative Medicine, 17, 33-39.

CARDIAC HEALTH

• In mice taking a supplement of pine bark extract decreased body weight, percentage body fat, systolic blood pressure and plasma viscosity, and improved basal and hyperaemic blood flow.  From:  Shand, B., Strey, C., Scott, R., Morrison, Z., & Gieseg, S. (2003). Pilot study on the clinical effects of dietary supplementation with Enzogenol®, a flavonoid extract of pine bark and vitamin C. Phytotherapy Research, 17(5), 490-494.

​GREEN GARDENING

• Essential oil from Pinus pinaster and Cupressus sempervirens were active against 10 crop fungi and 4 tested weeds.  From:  Amri, I., Hanana, M., Gargouri, S., Jamoussi, B., & Hamrouni, L. (2013). Comparative study of two coniferous species (Pinus pinaster Aiton and Cupressus sempervirens L. var. dupreziana [A. Camus] Silba) essential oils: chemical composition and biological activity. Chilean journal of agricultural research, 73(3), 259-266.
• Thirty essential oils were tested against pathogenic plant bacteria. Ceylon cinnamon (leaf and bark), oregano, clove bud, palmarosa, basil, peppermint, rosemary, blue gum, camphor, lemongrass, aniseed, ylang ylang, silver fir, lemon, dwarf mountain pine, bay laurel, scots pine, black cumin, Indian frankincense, bergamot orange, common juniper, bitter orange, and neem showed varying degrees of reaction.  From: Popović, T., Milićević, Z., Oro, V., Kostić, I., Radović, V., Jelušić, A., & Krnjajić, S. (2018). A preliminary study of antibacterial activity of thirty essential oils against several important plant pathogenic bacteria. Pesticidi i fitomedicina, 33(3-4), 185-195.

IMMUNE STIMULANT

• Phytoncides (like alpha pinene, carene and myrcene) found in wood essential oils significantly enhance human natural killer cell activity, important to the immune system.  From: Li, Q., Nakadai, A., Matsushima, H., Miyazaki, Y., Krensky, A. M., Kawada, T., & Morimoto, K. (2006). Phytoncides (wood essential oils) induce human natural killer cell activity. Immunopharmacology and immunotoxicology, 28(2), 319-333.

By: Kathy Sadowski

Updated: 10/17/2022