Sage (Salvia officinalis) Research

Latin Name: Salvia officinalis

Family: Lamiaceae

RESEARCH

The listings of research below represent a compilation of scientific articles found on the species, with a very brief overview description of each article/study.  Research found is catalogued by therapeutic action.  This categorized compilation of research articles does not necessarily imply that there are adequate results to demonstrate safe and/or effective human use.

GENERAL

• Lis-Balchin, M. (2006). Aromatherapy Science: A guide for healthcare professionals. London: Pharmaceutical Press.
• Studies demonstrating the following actions of sage were reviewed:  anticancer, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antioxidant, amtimicrobial, antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, antidementia, antialzheimer’s, hypolipidemic and hypoglycemic.  From:  Ghorbani, A., & Esmaeilizadeh, M. (2017). Pharmacological properties of Salvia officinalis and its components. Journal of traditional and complementary medicine, 7(4), 433-440.
• Sage has documented use since ancient Greek times.  Dioscorides wrote in A.D. 50-70 that it was used to help stop bleeding.  The Greeks also used it for respiratory complaints and indigestion.  It’s Latin genus name, Salvia, comes from the word: salvere, which means, “to be saved.”  The use of sage spread around Europe in the Middle Ages.  The French called the plant: toute bonne, which translates to “all is well.”  In the late 1500’s, English herbalist, John Gerard, wrote that sage was “good for the head and brain.”  In 1772, The Virtues of British Herbs wrote that sage would help a person live to an advanced age.  From:  From: Weil, A., et al. (2010).  National Geographic Guide to Medicinal Herbs.  National Geographic.  Washington D.C.

SAFETY / QUALITY

• Sage essential oil can be a skin irritant (Lis-Balchin, 2006).
• Essential oil is not recommended with pregnancy, breast feeding, small children, and the fragile population (Lis-Balchin, 2006).
• Essential oil is not for internal use (Lis-Balchin, 2006).
• Camphor, thujone, and terpene ketones found in essential oils are toxic.
• Sage, cedar, thuja, and hyssop essential oil showed convulsant and neurotoxic activity in mice related to the constituents camphor, thujone, thuja, and pinocamphone.  From:  Millet, Y., Jouglard, J., Steinmetz, M. D., Tognetti, P., Joanny, P., & Arditti, J. (1981). Toxicity of some essential plant oils. Clinical and experimental study. Clinical toxicology, 18(12), 1485-1498.
• Toxic induced seizures from the following plants was reported:  eucalyptus, fennel, hyssop, pennyroyal, rosemary, sage, savin, tansy, thuja, turpentine, and wormwood.  Ketone constituents including camphor, pinocamphone, thujone, cineole, pulegone, sabinylacetate, and fenchone were mentioned. From:  Burkhard, P. R., Burkhardt, K., Haenggeli, C. A., & Landis, T. (1999). Plant-induced seizures: reappearance of an old problem. Journal of neurology, 246(8), 667-670.

ANTIMICROBIAL / ANTIFUNGAL / ANTIBACTERIAL / ANTIVIRAL

• Twenty-five bacteria species and one fungal species were tested against laurel, sage, rosemary, oregano, and coriander and the oils showed a high degree of inhibition against them all, with the oregano being the strongest.  From:  Baratta, M. T., Dorman, H. D., Deans, S. G., Biondi, D. M., & Ruberto, G. (1998). Chemical composition, antimicrobial and antioxidative activity of laurel, sage, rosemary, oregano and coriander essential oils. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 10(6), 618-627.
• Extracts from lemon balm, peppermint, prunella, rosemary, sage, and thyme showed action against Herpes types 1 and 2.  From:  Nolkemper, S., Reichling, J., Stintzing, F. C., Carle, R., & Schnitzler, P. (2006). Antiviral effect of aqueous extracts from species of the Lamiaceae family against Herpes simplex virus type 1 and type 2 in vitro. Planta medica, 72(15), 1378-1382.
• Oregano, spearmint, lavender, and sage essential oils and the constituents of carvacrol and thymol exhibited antifungal properties against the human pathogens Malassezia furfur, Trichophyton rubrum, and Trichosporon beigelii. From:  Adam, K., Sivropoulou, A., Kokkini, S., Lanaras, T., & Arsenakis, M. (1998). Antifungal activities of Origanum vulgare subsp. hirtum, Mentha spicata, Lavandula angustifolia, and Salvia fruticosa essential oils against human pathogenic fungi. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 46(5), 1739-1745.
• Against oral bacteria, Australian tea tree, peppermint, and sage oil as well as the thymol and eugenol constituents were potent.  From:  Shapiro, S., Meier, A., & Guggenheim, B. (1994). The antimicrobial activity of essential oils and essential oil components towards oral bacteria. Oral microbiology and immunology, 9(4), 202-208.
• Lemon balm (Melissa officinalis), peppermint (Mentha piperita), and sage (Salvia officinalis) exhibited a high and concentration-dependent activity against the HIV-1 infection.  From:  Geuenich, S., Goffinet, C., Venzke, S., Nolkemper, S., Baumann, I., Plinkert, P., … & Keppler, O. T. (2008). Aqueous extracts from peppermint, sage and lemon balm leaves display potent anti-HIV-1 activity by increasing the virion density. Retrovirology, 5(1), 1.
• Sweet fennel, marjoram, mint, oregano, sage, savory, and thyme showed antibacterial activity against Bacillus species. From:  Özcan, M. M., Sagdıç, O., & Özkan, G. (2006). Inhibitory effects of spice essential oils on the growth of Bacillus species. Journal of medicinal food, 9(3), 418-421.
• Plant oils of 52 species were tested against key bacteria.  Lemongrass, oregano and bay inhibited all organisms, and rosewood, coriander, palmarosa, tea tree, niaouli, peppermint, spearmint, sage and marjoram inhibited all organisms except P. aeruginosa.  Carrot, patchouli, sandalwood and vetiver inhibited Gram-positive bacteria and C. albicans. Myrrh and cypress inhibited only Gram-positive organisms and mandarin oil inhibited only C. albicans.  From:  Hammer, K. A., Carson, C. F., & Riley, T. V. (1999). Antimicrobial activity of essential oils and other plant extracts. Journal of applied microbiology, 86(6), 985-990.
• Essential oils from Columbia of the Labiatae family showed the most anti-herpetic activity, with Lepechinia salvifolia (pitchersage), Hyptis mutabilis (bushmint), Lepechinia vulcanicola (pitchersage), Mintostachys mollis (mint) and Ocimum campechianum (basil) inhibiting activity during early stages of the herpes infection.  From:  Brand, Y. M., Roa-Linares, V. C., Betancur-Galvis, L. A., Durán-García, D. C., & Stashenko, E. (2016). Antiviral activity of Colombian Labiatae and Verbenaceae family essential oils and monoterpenes on Human Herpes viruses. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 28(2), 130-137.
• Origanum vulgare, Melissa officinalis, Rosmarinus officinalis, Ocimum basilicum, Salvia officinalis, and Hyssopus officinalis were test and O. vulgare extracts exhibited the highest antioxidant capacity, and the highest rosmarinic acid and polyphenolic contents. L. monocytogenes, S. aureus and C. albicans were pathogens affected by all six extracts.  From:  Benedec, D., Hanganu, D., Oniga, I., Tiperciuc, B., Olah, N. K., Raita, O., … & Vlase, L. (2015). Assessment of rosmarinic acid content in six Lamiaceae species extracts and their antioxidant and antimicrobial potential. Pak. J. Pharm. Sci, 28(6), 2297-2303.
• Salvia fructicosa essential oil and its isolated components thujone and 1,8-cineole exhibited antimicrobial activity against eight bacterial strains, and the oil showed antiviral and cytotoxic capabilities.  From:  Sivropoulou, A., Nikolaou, C., Papanikolaou, E., Kokkini, S., Lanaras, T., & Arsenakis, M. (1997). Antimicrobial, cytotoxic, and antiviral activities of Salvia fructicosa essential oil. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 45(8), 3197-3201.
• Laurus nobilis (bay), salvia officinalis (sage), rosmarinus officinalis (rosemary), origanum vulgare (oregano), and coriandrum sativum (coriander) demonstrated antimicrobial, antioxidant activity, with oregano being the strongest.  From:  Baratta, M. T., Dorman, H. D., Deans, S. G., Biondi, D. M., & Ruberto, G. (1998). Chemical composition, antimicrobial and antioxidative activity of laurel, sage, rosemary, oregano and coriander essential oils. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 10(6), 618-627.
• Citrus aurantium (bergamot), C. limon (lemon), Lavandula angustifolia (lavender), Matricaria chamomilla (chamomile), Mentha piperita (peppermint), M. spicata (spearmint), Ocimum basilicum (basil), Origanum vulgare(oregano), Thymus vulgaris (thyme), and Salvia officinalis (sage) along with their constituents were tested against human pathogenic bacteria.  The highest and broadest activity was shown by O. vulgare oil and carvacrol had the highest antibacterial activity among the tested constituents.  Other significant constituents included: camphor, 1,8-cineole, linalool, linalyl acetate, limonene, menthol, a-pinene, b-pinene, and thymol.  From:  Soković, M., Glamočlija, J., Marin, P. D., Brkić, D., & van Griensven, L. J. (2010). Antibacterial effects of the essential oils of commonly consumed medicinal herbs using an in vitro model. Molecules, 15(11), 7532-7546.
• Essential oils of Salvia officinalis and Salvia triloba were antibacterial.  From:  Delamare, A. P. L., Moschen-Pistorello, I. T., Artico, L., Atti-Serafini, L., & Echeverrigaray, S. (2007). Antibacterial activity of the essential oils of Salvia officinalis L. and Salvia triloba L. cultivated in South Brazil. Food chemistry, 100(2), 603-608.
• Strong antioxidant activity was observed in polar extracts of Lycopus europaeus, Melissa officinalis, Origanum vulgare and Lavandula latifolia.  Phlomis lychnitis, Salvia pratensis and Calamintha sylvatica caused the highest fungal inhibition  From:  López, V., Akerreta, S., Casanova, E., García-Mina, J. M., Cavero, R. Y., & Calvo, M. I. (2007). In vitro antioxidant and anti-rhizopus activities of Lamiaceae herbal extracts. Plant foods for human nutrition, 62(4), 151-155.
• Rosemary and sage were tested against against 13 bacterial strains 6 fungi, and 5 dermatomycetes and showed strong antimicrobial activity.  Rosemary also showed strong antioxidant activities.  From:  Bozin, B., Mimica-Dukic, N., Samojlik, I., & Jovin, E. (2007). Antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of rosemary and sage (Rosmarinus officinalis L. and Salvia officinalis L., Lamiaceae) essential oils. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 55(19), 7879-7885.
• Complete inhibition of mycelial growth and aflatoxin production by the fungus Aspergillus parasticus were achieved by these oils:  thyme, cumin, clove, caraway, rosemary, and sage. From:  Farag, R. S., Daw, Z. Y., & Abo‐Raya, S. H. (1989). Influence of some spice essential oils on Aspergillus parasiticus growth and production of aflatoxins in a synthetic medium. Journal of Food Science, 54(1), 74-76.
• Rosemary, and sage essential oil and the component eucalyptol were active against yeast strains.  From:  Steinmetz, M. D., Moulin‐Traffort, J., & Regli, P. (1988). Transmission and Scanning Electronmicroscopy Study of the Action of Sage and Rosemary Essential Oils and Eucalyptol on Candida albicans/Transmissions‐und rasterelektronenmikroskopische Untersuchungen zur Wirkung von Salbeiöl, Rosmarinöl und Eucalyptol auf Candida albicans. Mycoses, 31(1), 40-51.
• Antimicrobial activities of lavender, thyme, peppermint, cajeput, cinnamon, clove, eucalyptus, sage, and tea tree were summarized.  From:  Wińska, K., Mączka, W., Łyczko, J., Grabarczyk, M., Czubaszek, A., & Szumny, A. (2019). Essential Oils as Antimicrobial Agents—Myth or Real Alternative?. Molecules, 24(11), 2130.
• Roman chamomile, curry plant, hyssop, lavandin, marjoram sweet, orange mint, spearmint, monarda, oregano, rosemary, rue sage, tansy, tarragon, thyme common and yarrow showed vapour activity against the fungi that causes ringworm. From:  Inouye, S., Uchida, K., & Abe, S. (2006). Volatile composition and vapour activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes of 36 aromatic herbs cultivated in Chichibu district in Japan. International Journal of Aromatherapy, 16(3), 159-168.
• The combined topical sage-rhubarb preparation was more effective than aciclovir in treating Herpes labialis.  From:  Saller, R., Büechi, S., Meyrat, R., & Schmidhauser, C. (2001). Combined herbal preparation for topical treatment of Herpes labialis. Forschende Komplementärmedizin/Research in Complementary Medicine, 8(6), 373-382.
• Verbascum gypsicola (mullein) extracts had strong antimicrobial activity against gram positive bacteria and yeast, lamb’s ear species were effective only against bacteria, and a sage species, Salvia aytachii demonstrated an effect against bacteria and yeast.  From:  Dulger, B., & Gonuz, A. (2004). Antimicrobial activity of some endemic Verbascum, Salvia, and Stachys species. Pharmaceutical biology, 42(4-5), 301-304.
• The following essential oils were tested and showed varying degrees of antimicrobial, antifungal, antibacterial, and antiviral activities: Anethum graveolens, Foeniculum vulgare, Mentha piperita, Mentha spicata, Lavandula officinalis, Ocimum basilicum, Origanum onites, O. vulgare, O. munitiflorum, O. majorana, Rosmarinus officinalis, Salvia officinalis, and Satureja cuneifolia. From: Orhan, İlkay Erdoğan, et al. “Antimicrobial and antiviral effects of essential oils from selected Umbelliferae and Labiatae plants and individual essential oil components.” Turkish Journal of Biology 36.3 (2012): 239-246.
• An essential oil blend with a Greek hyssop, sage, and marjoram essential oil was virucidal against influenza viruses and the rhinovirus in vitro. From: Tseliou, M., Pirintsos, S. A., Lionis, C., Castanas, E., & Sourvinos, G. (2019). Antiviral effect of an essential oil combination derived from three aromatic plants (Coridothymus capitatus (L.) Rchb. f., Origanum dictamnus L. and Salvia fruticosa Mill.) against viruses causing infections of the upper respiratory tract. Journal of Herbal Medicine, 17, 100288.

​PRESERVATIVE

• Salad preservation was lengthened with the essential oils of thyme verbena, thyme, oregano, ajowan, tea tree, clove, sage, and rosemary.  From:  Molinos, A. C., Abriouel, H., López, R. L., Omar, N. B., Valdivia, E., & Gálvez, A. (2009). Enhanced bactericidal activity of enterocin AS-48 in combination with essential oils, natural bioactive compounds and chemical preservatives against Listeria monocytogenes in ready-to-eat salad. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 47(9), 2216-2223.
• Basil, lemon balm, marjoram, oregano, rosemary, sage, and thyme showed varying degrees of antimicrobial activity on foodborne pathogens.  From:  Gutierrez, J., Rodriguez, G., Barry-Ryan, C., & Bourke, P. (2008). Efficacy of plant essential oils against foodborne pathogens and spoilage bacteria associated with ready-to-eat vegetables: antimicrobial and sensory screening. Journal of Food Protection®, 71(9), 1846-1854.
• Essential oils of cilantro, coriander, cinnamon, oregano, rosemary, sage, clove, thyme, lemongrass, turmeric, mint, basil, and constituents of linalool, cinnamaldehyde, carvacrol, thymol, terpinene, cymene, alpha/beta pinene, bornyl acetate, camphor, 1,8-cineole, alpha terpeneol, geraniol, perrilaldehyde, and eugenol have demonstrated food preserving potential.  From:  Burt, S. (2004). Essential oils: their antibacterial properties and potential applications in foods—a review. International journal of food microbiology, 94(3), 223-253.

PESTICIDAL

• The following essential oils showed fumigant potential against these mites: Tetranychus urticae and Phytoseiulus persimilis:  caraway seed, citronella, java, lemon eucalyptus, pennyroyal, peppermint, sage, spearmint.  From: Choi, W. I., Lee, S. G., Park, H. M., & Ahn, Y. J. (2004). Toxicity of plant essential oils to Tetranychus urticae (Acari: Tetranychidae) and Phytoseiulus persimilis (Acari: Phytoseiidae). Journal of Economic Entomology, 97(2), 553-558.
• Against head lice, eucalyptus, marjoram, pennyroyal, and rosemary oils beat  δ-phenothrin and pyrethrum and activity of cade, cardamone ceylon, clove bud, myrtle, rosewood, and sage oils were comparable with the test insecticides.  From:  Yang, Y. C., Lee, H. S., Clark, J. M., & Ahn, Y. J. (2004). Insecticidal activity of plant essential oils against Pediculus humanus capitis (Anoplura: Pediculidae). Journal of Medical Entomology, 41(4), 699-704.

DEODORANT

• In a randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial, deodorant with sage extract reduced the underarm odor of 45 female participants.  From:  Shahtalebi, M. A., Ghanadian, M., Farzan, A., Shiri, N., Shokri, D., & Fatemi, S. A. (2013). Deodorant effects of a sage extract stick: Antibacterial activity and sensory evaluation of axillary deodorancy. Journal of research in medical sciences: the official journal of Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, 18(10), 833.

ANTIOXIDANT

• Rosemary has been extensively studied as a natural antioxidants with sage and oregano gaining interest for their antioxidant potential.  From:  Yanishlieva, N. V., Marinova, E., & Pokorný, J. (2006). Natural antioxidants from herbs and spices. European Journal of lipid science and Technology, 108(9), 776-793.
• Geranium macrorrhizum (Bulgarian geranium), multiple species in the sage family including clary sage, and Potentilla fruticosa extracts possessed very high radical scavenging activity.  From: Miliauskas, G., Venskutonis, P. R., & Van Beek, T. A. (2004). Screening of radical scavenging activity of some medicinal and aromatic plant extracts. Food chemistry, 85(2), 231-237.
• Sage, oregano and rosemary protected against hydrogen peroxide DNA damage in the mouse tail, and only sage protected against cytotoxicity.  From:  Aherne, S. A., Kerry, J. P., & O’Brien, N. M. (2007). Effects of plant extracts on antioxidant status and oxidant-induced stress in Caco-2 cells. British Journal of Nutrition, 97(02), 321-328.
• Sweet marjoram, sage and dittany extracts were found to have a remarkable capacity in retarding lipid oxidation and may be useful in an herbal tea concoction.  From:  Triantaphyllou, Georgios Blekas, Dimitrios Boskou, K. (2001). Antioxidative properties of water extracts obtained from herbs of the species Lamiaceae. International journal of food sciences and nutrition, 52(4), 313-317.
• Antioxidant activity of sage and rosemary was associated with phenolic content.  From:  Papageorgiou, V., Gardeli, C., Mallouchos, A., Papaioannou, M., & Komaitis, M. (2008). Variation of the chemical profile and antioxidant behavior of Rosmarinus officinalis L. and Salvia fruticosa Miller grown in Greece. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 56(16), 7254-7264.
• The following dried herbs tested contained high amounts of antioxidant content:  oregano, sage, peppermint, thyme, lemon balm, clove, allspice, cinnamon, and a few additional Chinese medicinal herbs.   From:  Dragland, S., Senoo, H., Wake, K., Holte, K., & Blomhoff, R. (2003). Several culinary and medicinal herbs are important sources of dietary antioxidants. The Journal of nutrition, 133(5), 1286-1290.
• Using a smaller particle size increased antioxidant power in extracts made from agrimony, sage and savoury.  From:  Gião, M. S., Pereira, C. I., Fonseca, S. C., Pintado, M. E., & Malcata, F. X. (2009). Effect of particle size upon the extent of extraction of antioxidant power from the plants Agrimonia eupatoria, Salvia sp. and Satureja montana. Food Chemistry, 117(3), 412-416.

ANTICANCER / ANTI-TUMOR

• The extracts of O. syriacum (oregano), L. nobilis (bay), and S .triloba (sage) showed antiproliferative, antitumor activity to adenocarcinoma of breast cells.  From:  Al-Kalaldeh, J. Z., Abu-Dahab, R., & Afifi, F. U. (2010). Volatile oil composition and antiproliferative activity of Laurus nobilis, Origanum syriacum, Origanum vulgare, and Salvia triloba against human breast adenocarcinoma cells. Nutrition Research, 30(4), 271-278.
• Salvia species demonstrated antitumor activity.  From:  Fiore, G., Nencini, C., Cavallo, F., Capasso, A., Bader, A., Giorgi, G., & Micheli, L. (2006). In vitro antiproliferative effect of six Salvia species on human tumor cell lines. Phytotherapy Research, 20(8), 701-703.

​ANTIDIABETIC / HYPOLIPIDEMIC

• In this double blind clinical trial of 80 patients with type 2 diabetes, intake of sage significantly reduced blood sugar and cholesterol levels.  From:  Behradmanesh, S., Derees, F., & Rafieian-kopaei, M. (2013). Effect of Salvia officinalis on diabetic patients. Journal of renal injury prevention, 2(2), 51.
• In a randomized placebo controlled study of 40 patients with high cholesterol and type 2 diabetes, intake of a 500 mg sage extract daily for three months lowered cholesterol and blood sugar levels.  From:  Kianbakht, S., & Dabaghian, F. H. (2013). Improved glycemic control and lipid profile in hyperlipidemic type 2 diabetic patients consuming Salvia officinalis L. leaf extract: a randomized placebo. Controlled clinical trial. Complementary therapies in medicine, 21(5), 441-446.
• In a pilot study of healthy females, drinking 300 mL of sage tea twice a day for 4 weeks reduced cholesterol and LDL. From:  Sá, C. M., Ramos, A. A., Azevedo, M. F., Lima, C. F., Fernandes-Ferreira, M., & Pereira-Wilson, C. (2009). Sage tea drinking improves lipid profile and antioxidant defences in humans. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 10(9), 3937-3950.
• Extracts of cloves, ground Jamaican allspice, and cinnamon showed the strong antidiabetic activity in vitro, likely due to phenolic content. Other potent herbs tested included sage, marjoram, tarragon, and rosemary. From:  Dearlove, R. P., Greenspan, P., Hartle, D. K., Swanson, R. B., & Hargrove, J. L. (2008). Inhibition of protein glycation by extracts of culinary herbs and spices. Journal of medicinal food, 11(2), 275-281.
• Carnosic acid and carnosol constituents from rosemary and sage had a blood sugar lowering effect.  From:  Rau, O., Wurglics, M., Paulke, A., Zitzkowski, J., Meindl, N., Bock, A., … & Schubert-Zsilavecz, M. (2006). Carnosic acid and carnosol, phenolic diterpene compounds of the labiate herbs rosemary and sage, are activators of the human peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma. Planta medica, 72(10), 881-887.
• Tea preparations from the following plants showed in vitro antidiabetic, antioxidant activities: green tea, peppermint, black, thyme, olive leaf, sage, absinthium, blackberry, and roselle.  From:  Büyükbalci, A., & El, S. N. (2008). Determination of in vitro antidiabetic effects, antioxidant activities and phenol contents of some herbal teas. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, 63(1), 27-33.

SPASMOLYTIC

• Spasmolytic activity of peppermint, sage, and rosemary were assessed.  From:  Taddei, I., Giachetti, D., Taddei, E., Mantovani, P., & Bianchi, E. (1988). Spasmolytic activity of peppermint, sage and rosemary essences and their major constituents. Fitoterapia, 59, 463-468.

​HEPATOPROTECTIVE

• Hibiscus, rosemary, and sage species showed liver protective activity in rats. From:  Amin, A., & Hamza, A. A. (2005). Hepatoprotective effects of Hibiscus, Rosmarinus and Salvia on azathioprine-induced toxicity in rats. Life sciences, 77(3), 266-278.  Link:  http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2004.09.048

BONE DENSITY

• Essential oils of sage, rosemary, thyme, juniper, pine, turpentine, and eucalyptus and their constituents of thujone, eucalyptol, camphor, borneol, thymol, alpha-pinene, beta-pinene, bornylacetate, and menthol inhibited bone resorption.  From:  Mühlbauer, R. C., Lozano, A., Palacio, S., Reinli, A., & Felix, R. (2003). Common herbs, essential oils, and monoterpenes potently modulate bone metabolism. Bone, 32(4), 372-380.  Link:  http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S8756-3282(03)00027-9

COGNITION / MEMORY / ALZHEIMER’S

• In a systematic review of multiple human studies, both S. officinalis and S. lavandulaefolia improved cognitive function in healthy patients as well as those with Alzheimer’s / dementia, however higher methodological standardized human clinical trials are needed.  From:  Miroddi, M., Navarra, M., Quattropani, M. C., Calapai, F., Gangemi, S., & Calapai, G. (2014). Systematic Review of Clinical Trials Assessing Pharmacological Properties of S alvia Species on Memory, Cognitive Impairment and Alzheimer’s Disease. CNS neuroscience & therapeutics, 20(6), 485-495.
• In this randomized, placebo controlled, double blind, cross over study with 20 older adults, a 333 mg extract of sage improved memory and attention.  From:  Scholey, A. B., Tildesley, N. T., Ballard, C. G., Wesnes, K. A., Tasker, A., Perry, E. K., & Kennedy, D. O. (2008). An extract of Salvia (sage) with anticholinesterase properties improves memory and attention in healthy older volunteers. Psychopharmacology, 198(1), 127-139.
• In a study of 45 healthy young adults, Salvia officinalis and Saliva lavandulaefolia aroma improved memory performance compared to the control group.  From:  Moss, M., Rouse, M., & Moss, L. (2014). Aromas of salvia species enhance everyday prospective memory performance in healthy young adults. Advances in Chemical Engineering and Science, 4, 339-346.
• In this double blind, randomized, placebo controlled study of 44 adults, a combination of sage, rosemary, and melissa ethenal extracts taken internally improved verbal memory, especially in the older age group.   From:  Perry, N. S. L., Menzies, R., Hodgson, F., Wedgewood, P., Howes, M. J., Brooker, H. J., … & Perry, E. K. (2017). A randomised double-blind placebo-controlled pilot trial of a combined extract of sage, rosemary and melissa, traditional herbal medicines, on the enhancement of memory in normal healthy subjects, including influence of age. Phytomedicine.

SKIN / WOUND HEALING

• A gel containing calendula, German chamomile, and sage reduced hand-foot skin erythema in this double blind study with 27 patients. The gel was applied four times a day for 2 weeks. From: Karimi, E., Gharib, B., Rostami, N., Navidpour, L., & Afshar, M. (2019). Clinical efficacy of a topical polyherbal formulation in the management of fluorouracil-associated hand-foot syndrome. Journal of Herbal Medicine, 100270.
• Against skin pathogens, U. barbata (beard lichen) extract and usnic acid were the most active; rosemary, sage, frankincense, and devil’s claw extracts also proved to be effective against a variety of bacteria.  From:  Weckesser, S., Engel, K., Simon-Haarhaus, B., Wittmer, A., Pelz, K., & Schempp, C. M. (2007). Screening of plant extracts for antimicrobial activity against bacteria and yeasts with dermatological relevance. Phytomedicine, 14(7), 508-516.
• This was a review of research on botanicals and natural extracts for wound repair. Significant research was found for propolis, Aloe vera, Achillea millefolium, Salvia officinalis, Malva sylvestris, and Casearia sylvestris. From: Medellin-Luna, M. F., Castaneda-Delgado, J. E., Martínez-Balderas, V. Y., & Cervantes-Villagrana, A. R. (2019). Medicinal plant extracts and their use as wound closure inducing agents. Journal of medicinal food, 22(5), 435-443.
• In a study of 50 patients with wound ulcers, an herbal ointment was applied twice a day for 28 days. It contained Symphytum officinale, Plantago major, Calendula officinalis, Matricaria chamomilla, Bellis perennis, Achillea millefolium, Salvia officinalis, Hypericum perforatum, Olea europaea, Lavandula officinalis, Melaleuca alternifolia, Cympobogon martini, Origanum vulgare, Eugenia caryophyllata, Thymus vulgaris ct. thymol, Cera alba, honey, and glycerol. Results showed significant healing of wounds. From: Oreščanin, V. (2016). Treatment of pressure ulcers with Bioapifit® wound healing herbal ointment-a preliminary study. IJRDO: J Biol Sci, 2(10), 1-15.
• In this review of human studies on herbs for wound healing, the following plants were discussed: Aloe vera, Salvia miltiorrhizia, Alchemilla vulgaris, Angelica sinensis, Origanum vulgare, Lavandula stoechas, Radix astragalis, Rehmanniae radix, Ageratina pichinchensis, Calendula officianalis, and Mimosa tenaiflora. From: Lordani, T. V. A., de Lara, C. E., Ferreira, F. B. P., de Souza Terron Monich, M., Mesquita da Silva, C., Lordani, F., … & Lonardoni, M. V. C. (2018). Therapeutic effects of medicinal plants on cutaneous wound healing in humans: A systematic review. Mediators of inflammation, 2018.

DANDRUFF

• An herbal shampoo blend of alcohol extracts from Punica granatum, Rosmarinus officinalis, Matricaria chamomilla, Urtica dioica, Mentha piperita, and Salvia officinalis with Pirocton Olamine and Zinc-PCA were tested on 30 dandruff patients for two months. Significant reduction in dandruff resulted.  From:  Sahraie-Rad, M., Izadyari, A., Rakizadeh, S., & Sharifi-Rad, J. (2015). Preparation of strong antidandruff shampoo using medicinal plant extracts: a clinical trial and chronic dandruff treatment. Jundishapur Journal of Natural Pharmaceutical Products, 10(4), e21517.

ANALGESIC

• In a randomized controlled trial of 420 patients receiving a tonsillectomy or adenoidectomy, an oral rinse containing sage post surgery had an antinociceptive effect.  From:  Lalićević, S., & Djordjević, I. (2004). Comparison of benzydamine hydrochloride and Salvia officinalis as an adjuvant local treatment to systemic nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug in controlling pain after tonsillectomy, adenoidectomy, or both: an open-label, single-blind, randomized clinical trial. Current therapeutic research, 65(4), 360-372.
• In a review of research, plants used to treat neuropathic pain include: Vernonia cinerea, Ocimum sanctum, Ferula hermonis, Sambucus nigra, Salvia officinalis, Moringa oleifera, Harpagophytum procumbens, Momordica charantia, Butea monosperma, Punica granatum, Commiphora mukul, Ginkgo biloba, Crocus sativus , Cymbopogon martinii, Sinomenium acutum, Euterpe oleracea, Matricaria chamomilla, Nigella sativa, Aconiti tuber, Emblica officinalis, Phyllanthus amarus, Artemisia dracunculus, Allium sepa, and Allium sativum. From: Verma, S., Jain, C. P., Chauhan, L. S., & Shukla, A. K. (2016). A review on treatment and management of neuropathic pain with herbal folk drugs. Asian Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, 2(5), 104-110.

ANTI-INFLAMMATORY

• This article discusses the anti-inflammatory actions of carnosic acid and carnosol as found in rosemary and sage.  From:  Poeckel, D., Greiner, C., Verhoff, M., Rau, O., Tausch, L., Hörnig, C., … & Werz, O. (2008). Carnosic acid and carnosol potently inhibit human 5-lipoxygenase and suppress pro-inflammatory responses of stimulated human polymorphonuclear leukocytes. Biochemical pharmacology, 76(1), 91-97.

RESPIRATORY AID

• This article summarized the use of Eucalyptus citriodora, Eucalyptus globulus, Mentha piperita, Origanum syriacum, Salvia fruticosa and Rosmarinus officinalis in treating respiratory ailments.  From:  Rakover, Y., Ben-Arye, E., & Goldstein, L. H. (2008). The treatment of respiratory ailments with essential oils of some aromatic medicinal plants. Harefuah, 147(10), 783-8.

COUGH

• Listed are herbs commonly used for cough suppression.  These herbs include: Acacia catechu, Acorus calamus, Adhatoda vasica, Allium sativum, Angelica archangelica, Astragalus membranaceus, Carum copticum, Lavandula angustifolia, Lobelia inflata, Salvia officinalis, Sambucus nigra, Tussilago farfara, Valeriana officinalis, Verbascum thapsus, and Zingiber officinale.  From:  Sultana, S., Khan, A., & Alhazmi, M. M. S. H. A. (2016). Cough Suppressant Herbal Drugs: A Review. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Science Invention, 5(5), 15-28.

ORAL HEALTH

• In a study with 100 dental student volunteers, an herbal toothpaste containing chamomile, echinacea, sage, rhatany, myrrh and peppermint oil was just as effective as typical commercial toothpaste in oral hygiene measures.  From:  Mitra, D., Shah, S., Shah, R., Rodrigues, S., Pathare, P., & Vijayakar, H. (2015). Evaluation of the Clinical Efficacy of a Herbal Toothpaste in Comparison with a Triclosan Containing Toothpaste in a Population of Dental College Students–A Double-blind Randomized Controlled Trial. Indian Journal of Contemporary Dentistry, 3(2), 67-70.
• In a randomized controlled clinical study with 40 patients having moderate or severe periodontitis, an herbal mouthwash was assessed compared to a placebo. Both were taken twice a day for two minutes for 3 months. The herbal mouthwash contained Propolis resin extract, Plantago lanceolata, Salvia officinalis leaves extract, and 1.75% of essential oils (Salvia officinalis, Syzygium aromaticum buds, Mentha piperita leaves, Commiphora myrrha oleoresin and Pistacia lentiscus oleoresin). Results showed the herbal mouthwash reduced bleeding and plaque. From: Sparabombe, S., Monterubbianesi, R., Tosco, V., Orilisi, G., Hosein, A., Ferrante, L., … & Orsini, G. (2019). Efficacy of an all-natural polyherbal mouthwash in patients with periodontitis: a single-blind randomized controlled trial. Frontiers in physiology, 10, 632.

ANXIOLITIC

• Salvia miltiorrhiza (red sage) possessed anxiolytic effects.  From:  Liu, A. D., Cai, G. H., Wei, Y. Y., Yu, J. P., Chen, J., Yang, J., … & Wu, S. X. (2015). Anxiolytic effect of essential oils of Salvia miltiorrhiza in rats. International journal of clinical and experimental medicine, 8(8), 12756.
• 1,4-cineole, a minor constituent in sage plants, presents potential anxiolytic action of depression of the CNS.  From:  Gomes, P. B., Feitosa, M. L., Silva, M. I. G., Noronha, E. C., Moura, B. A., Venâncio, E. T., … & de Sousa, F. C. F. (2010). Anxiolytic-like effect of the monoterpene 1, 4-cineole in mice. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 96(3), 287-293.

​MENOPAUSE

• In a randomized controlled triple blind trial of 84 women, sage reduced the frequency of hot flashes in menopausal women.  From:  Sadeghi, A., Bakhshi, M., Behboodi, Z., Goodarzi, S., & Haghani, H. (2013). Effect of Sage extract on hot flashes in postmenopausal women. Complementary Medicine Journal of faculty of Nursing & Midwifery, 2(4), 324-335.
• This multicenter clinical trial of 71 patients showed a fresh sage preparation to reduce hot flushes.  From:  Bommer, S., Klein, P., & Suter, A. (2011). First time proof of sage’s tolerability and efficacy in menopausal women with hot flushes. Advances in therapy, 28(6), 490-500.

FEMALE HEALTH

• In a randomized clinical study with 156 women in labor, aroma of Salvia officiale reduced pain during labor compared to the placebo and to the aroma of Jasminum officinale.  From:  Kaviani, M., Maghbool, S., Azima, S., & Tabaei, M. H. (2014). Comparison of the effect of aromatherapy with Jasminum officinale and Salvia officinale on pain severity and labor outcome in nulliparous women. Iranian journal of nursing and midwifery research, 19(6).

By: Kathy Sadowski

Updated: 11/14/2020